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SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 


A  MANUAL  OF  MODERN 
SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT 


BY 

HENRY  EASTMAN  BENNETT 

PROFESSOR    OK    EDUCATION,   COLLEGE    OE    WILLIAM    AND    MARY 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON     •     NEW    YORK     •    CHICAOO     ■     LONDON 
ATLANTA     ■     DALLAS    ■     COLUMBUS     •     SAN    1-RANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1917,  BY 
HENRY  EASTMAN  BENNETT 


ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 
417-7 


ght   gtbrnttum   Kirtifl 

(,INN    AM)   CliMTANV'  I'KO- 
I'KIUTUKS  •  Ii(jST(jN  •  U.S.A. 


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PREFACE 

This  work  is  the  outcome  of  many  years  of  experience 
in  school  management  and  supervision,  as  well  as  in  the 
teaching  of  these  subjects  in  college  and  normal-school 
classes.  Its  aim  is  first  of  all  to  be  practical  and  genuinely 
helpful  to  teachers,  and  in  the  next  place  to  set  higher 
ideals  in  this  field  than  are  usually  associated  with  the 
practical  attitude.  Experience  has  convinced  the  author 
that  the  gap  between  theory  and  practice  is  more  imaginary 
than  necessary,  and  this  work  is  largely  an  effort  to  bridge 
that  chasm.  I  have  tried  to  reconcile  conflicting  theories 
and  to  outline  a  concrete  plan  of  procedure  in  which  many 
of  the  fine  but  uncorrelated  and  fragmentar}'  discussions 
may  be  harmonized.  It  is  recognized  that  many  widely 
known  statements,  even  some  included  in  the  "Readings" 
given  in  the  text,  are  more  or  less  in  conflict  with  the  posi- 
tions taken  here  ;  but  they  are  also  in  conflict  with  each 
other.  As  the  book  is  for  learners  rather  than  for  critical 
argument,  attention  has  not  been  directed  toward  these  dis- 
agreements in  particular,  but  every  effort  has  been  made  to 
encourage  independence  of  thought.  The  point  of  view  is 
further  set  forth  in  the  first  chapter. 

I  have  had  in  mind  the  average  school  of  average  oppor- 
tunities and  the  teacher  of  average  ability.  The  temptation 
to  think  in  terms  of  ideal  schools  and  experimental  schools 
has  been  put  aside  with  reluctance.  The  discussions  have 
been  directed  away  from  the  peculiar  problems  of  the  rural 
ungraded  school,  with  its  one  untrained  teacher,  and  from 
those  of  the  impersonal  unit  in  the  huge  municipal  machine, 


iv  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

though  it  is  hoped  there  is  something  of  value  for  both 
these,  and  I  have  thought  rather  of  the  community  school 
of  medium  size,  where  the  larger  part  of  American  teaching 
and  learning  is  done. 

My  deep  obligation  is  acknowledged  to  the  hundreds  of 
William  and  Mary  men  whose  responsiveness  has  been  an 
important  guide  to  the  things  most  worth  while  in  this  dis- 
cussion ;  to  the  earnest  corps  of  teachers  in  the  Training 
School  at  Williamsburg,  who  have  cooperated  by  testing  out 
the  more  radical  statements  in  daily  practice  ;  and  to  my  wife 
and  to  my  colleagues.  Professor  George  O.  Ferguson,  Jr., 
now  of  Colgate  University,  and  Professor  John  W.  Ritchie, 
for  their  patient  and  discriminating  criticisms  during  the 
preparation  of  the  book.  I  am  also  indebted,  for  extracts 
and  illustrations  used,  to  the  kindness  of  Dr.  John  Dewey, 
Dr.  Lewis  M.  Terman,  Dr.  Clarence  A.  Perr)',  the  Mac- 
millan  Company,  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Miss  Mora  J. 
Cooke,  Miss  Mar}^  E.  Murphy,  Superintendent  R.  E.  Hall, 

Director  \\\  H.  Magee,  and  others. 

H.  E.  B. 

Wn.I.IAMSlUKG,   ViKCIMA 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I.    EFFICIENCY  IN  MANAGEMENT 

Scope  of  school  management.  Economy.  Demonstrable  results. 
Management  as  educative  as  instruction.  Pupil's  interest  and 
school's  welfare  do  not  conflict.  The  form  and  the  spirit.  Gen- 
eralizations and  illustrations.  Conservatism,  criticisni,  and  rad- 
icalism.    Suggestions  to  students. 


CHAPTER  II.   THE  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 9 

A  glance  backward.  Central  location.  Sanitary  surroundings. 
The  teacher's  responsibility.  The  space  required.  Using  dis- 
advantages. Beautifying  sensibly.  Cleaning  up  and  keeping  up. 
Where  decency  is  in  danger.    Problems.    Readings. 

CHAPTER  III.    BUILDINGS 19 

In  retrospect.  Medieval  origins.  Modern  tendencies.  The  stand- 
ard classroom.  Corridors.  Doors.  Stairways.  Cloakrooms. 
Toilets.  Are  children  destructive  .''  The  remedy.  "  Destructive- 
ness "  diverted.    Advantages.    Problems.    Readings. 


CHAPTER  IV.    LIGHTING 28 

Eyestrain.  Its  causes.  Aggravations.  Its  effects.  The  pity  of  it. 
Principles  of  lighting.  Window  requirements.  Wall  coloring. 
Window  shades.  Which  direction  ?  Remedying  defective  light- 
ing. Lighting  limitations.  Books.  The  teacher's  opportunity. 
Problems.    Readings. 

CHAPTER  V.    HEAT  AND  VENTILATION 37 

Master-teachers  and  fresh  air.  Outdoor  classes.  Open-air  rooms. 
Window  ventilation.  ^Window  boards.  Flushing  and  drafts. 
Fresh  air.  What  is  fresh  air?  Oxygen  and  energy.  The  real 
temperature  problem.  Humidity.  What  is  the  ventilation  prob- 
lem.' Direct  radiation.  Gravity  systems  and  the  jacketed  stove. 
Hot-air  furnace.  Ventilation  standards.  Precautions.  Forced 
circulation.  Larger  systems.  Foot-drying.  Humidifying.  Test- 
ing the  air.    Summary  of  practical  rules.    Problems.    Readings. 

V 


vi  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VI.    SEATS  AND   DESKS 53 

Seats  of  the  past.  "  The  bugbear  of  school  hygiene."  Essentials 
of  a  good  desk  :  Construction  ;  Finish  ;  Single  ;  Seat ;  Back, 
Desktop;  Book  box  ;  Inkwells;  Movable  desks ;  Adjustments. 
The  hygiene  of  sitting.  Seating  and  posture  training.  Reno- 
vating defaced  desks.    Problems.    Readings. 

CHAPTER  Vll.    APPARATUS  .     .    .     .    ' 62 

Two  ways  of  wasting.  The  useful  and  the  useless.  Pupil-made 
apparatus.  Instruments  of  precision.  Familiar  contrivances. 
Good  tools.  Primary  materials.  Arithmetic  measures.  Maps. 
Stereopticon.  Library.  Museum.  Phonograph.  Playground 
equipment.  Care  of  equipment.  General  principles  quoted. 
Problems.    Readings. 

CHAPTER  VIII.    SCHOOL  IIOUSKKLKPIXG 75 

Standards  and  traditions.  Janitors.  Floor  cleaning.  Dusting. 
Disinfecting.  Chalk  dust.  Catch-alls.  Educative  values  and 
pupil  participation.  Summary  of  N.  E.  A.  recommendations. 
Problems.    Readings. 

1^    CHAPTER    IX.      HEALTH      RESPONSIBILITV     OF     THE 

SCHOOI 84 

A  growing  responsibility.  A  pressing  social  problem.  Sanitary 
dangers  and  ideals.  General  precautions.  Infectious  sprays. 
Drinking-cup  dangers.  Clean  hands.  The  rural  water  supply. 
Segregation  of  suspects.  Communicable  diseases  among  school 
children.  A  civic  lesson.  The  hope  of  human  progress.  Prob- 
lems.   Readings. 

"■   CHAPTER  X.    HEALTH  INSPECTION  AND  SUPERVISION       95 

The  four  responsibilities.  The  waste  from  physical  defects. 
Medical  inspectors.  Dental  inspection.  Examination  by  special- 
ists. School  nurses.  Teacher  as  medical  inspector.  Eye  tests. 
Hearing  tests.  Health  records.  Reports.  Special  consideration 
of  defectives.  Instruction  the  higher  purpose.  Competition  in 
health  training.    The  health  ideal.    Problems.    Readings. 

'^CHAPTER  XL    THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 109 

Early  courses.  State  and  city  tendencies.  Types  of  courses. 
The  time-limit  fallacy.  Shifting  bases  of  course  of  study.  True 
functions  of  the  course.  Its  adaptability.  Teacher's  use  of  the 
course.  The  measure  of  good  teaching.  The  cause  of  bad  teach- 
ing.   Problems.    Readings. 


Jy 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

^CHATTER  XII.   ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL    ...     119 

Origin  of  class  instruction.  The  trend  to  the  mechanical.  Un- 
graded schools.  Values  of  grading.  Factory  organization  or 
craftsmanship.'  Eight  and  four  or  six  and  six.  Departmental 
teaching.  Aims  of  modern  organization.  Indictment  of  the 
mechanical  systems.  Docs  grading  grade .'  Semiannual  grades. 
Shorter  intervals.  Special  classes.  Cambridge  "  double-track  " 
plan.  Pueblo  or  individual  plan.  Hatavia  plan.  I'lexible  or 
shifting  group  plan.  Flexible  subject  grouping.  Differentiated 
courses.  Essentials  of  flexibility.  Values  of  flexibility.  Problems. 
Readings. 

•^CHAPTER  XIII.    PROMOTIONS  AND  PUPIL  PROGRESS    .     138 

Promoting  machinery.  Nonpromotions.  Examinations  as  basis 
of  promotions.  Informal  tests.  Daily  grades.  Teacher's  judg- 
ment. Combinations.  Cooperative  classification.  Principles  of 
promotion.  Pupil  participation.  Partial  promotions.  Conditions. 
Continuous  promoting.  Efficiency  advancement.  Scientific  tests 
and  scales.    Problems.    Readings. 

-^CHAPTER  XIV.    MARKING  SVSTEMS 150 

Frequency.  Numerical  grades.  Qualitative  terms.  Letters. 
Departmental  variations.  Normal  distribution.  Relative  ranking. 
Awarding  honors  by  chance.  Instructive  grading.  Problems. 
Readings. 

./ CHAPTER  XV.    REPORTS  TO  PARENTS 159 

Effects  of  the  usual  type  of  report.  What  the  report  should  do. 
A  satisfactory  form.  Its  use.  Specimen  comments.  Effects  on 
teaching.    Problems. 

»^ CHAPTER  XVI.    THE  DAILV  SCHEDULE 167 

Traditional  forms.  Principles  of  the  schedule.  I.  Physiological 
considerations.  Fatigue.  II.  Pedagogical  considerations.  Reflex 
influences.  The  "  elastic  schedule."  Illustrative  program.  Pro- 
gram for  a  small  high  school.  A  Montessori  program.  The  Gary 
program.    Problems.    Readings. 

wCHAPTERXVli.  HOME  STLDV  AND  STUDY  PROGRAMS  184 
The  indictment  of  home  study.  Its  regulation.  Study  programs. 
Double  periods.  After-school  periods.  Segregated  study  plan. 
"  Form  subjects."  Individual  needs.  Concentration  during  work 
hours.  Knowledge  and  culture  study.  Latitude  in  home-study 
requirements.  Training  for  leisure.  Contributions  to  home  life. 
Problems.    Readings. 


viii  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

PAGE 

►^CHAPTER  XVIII.    GETTINC;  STARTED  RIGHT 194 

Readiness  of  the  teacher.  Readiness  of  the  plant.  Class  rolls. 
Course  of  study  interpreted.  First  impressions.  Work  of  the 
first  days.  Not  too  many  changes.  Study  habits.  A  clean  slate 
for  a  bad  record.  Getting  in  tune  for  the  day.  A  moment  of 
reverence.  Devotional  (?)  exercises.  Their  aim.  Bible  as  litera- 
ture. Routine  or  reverence  ?  Singing.  Educative  and  socializing 
exercises.    Problems.    Readings. 

V  CHAPTER  XIX.    ROUTINE 206 

Pros  and  cons.  Function  of  routine.  Laws  of  routine.  An  illus- 
tration. Results.  Pupil  initiative.  Persistency.  Fire  drills. 
Problems.     Readings. 

'  CHAPTER    XX.     ELIMINATING    WASTE     IN    TEACHING 

AND  STUDY 215 

Some  types  of  waste.  Useless  material.  Lack  of  aim.  Planning 
lessons  :  Aim  ;  Motivation  ;  Type  and  steps  of  lesson.  Value  of 
writing  plan.  Written  plan  a  guide  to  criticism.  Form  of  plan. 
When  plan-writing  becomes  unnecessary.  Self-criticism.  Prog- 
ress notes.  Eliminating  superfluous  drill.  Waste  in  lack  of 
thoroughness.  What  is  "  thoroughness  "  ?  What  errors  are  inex- 
cusable ?  Making  the  list  of  "  inexcusables."  Social  motivation. 
Grammatical  weeks.  Waste  in  study.  Study  is  selective  thinking. 
Dead-level  study  is  waste.    Assignment.    Problems.    Readings. 


f  CHAPTER  XXI.    WORK  AND  DRUDGERY      229 

Play  and  work.  Routine  and  drudgery.  Aims,  —  fleeting  and 
abiding.  Is  drudgery  blessed?  Dewey  on  work  and  drudgery. 
The  meaning  of  drudgery.  What  makes  for  character.'  Life  has 
no  need  for  drudges.  Summary  principles.  Drudgery  in  teach- 
ing.   Problems.    Readings. 

V  CHAPTER  XXII.    MARKING  EXERCISES 239 

The  drudgery  of  marking  papers.  Prevents  good  teaching. 
Marking  papers  fails  of  its  purpose.  Eliminating  needless  mis- 
takes. Application  of  the  taboo.  Values  of  grading  by  pupils, 
—  to  the  graders,  —  to  the  writers.  An  illustration.  .Some  mis- 
conceptions. Variations.  Makes  for  economy  and  definiteness. 
Exact  grades  required.  Value  in  questions  of  taste.  The 
teacher's  study  and  marking  of  the  papers.  Instructive 
comments.     Problems.     Readings. 


CONTENTS  IX 

PAGE 

"^CHAPTER  XXIII.    MOTIVES  AND  INCENTIVES 250 

Motives  defined.  Classification.  The  child  is  a  social  being. 
Interested  in  school  work  directly.  Normal  motives  social  and 
mixed.  Forms  and  evidences  of  social  control.  Multiple  social 
groups.  Sympathy  limited  by  knowledge.  Success  of  socialized 
school  work.  Methods  of  using  the  social  motive.  Group  com- 
petition. Contributions  to  the  class  group  in  "content"  studies. 
In  "form"  studies.  Remedying  deficiencies.  Group  self- 
correction.  Social  shortcomings  of  family  and  school.  Princi- 
ples of  motivation.  Meaning  of  incentive.  Use  of  incentives. 
Classification  of  incentives.  Principles  of  incentives.  Problems. 
Readings. 

-CHAPTER  XXIV.    PUNISHMENT 269 

Negative  incentives.  Punishment  through  the  ages.  Principles 
of  punishment ;  Promotes  affection  ;  "  Lightning  principle  "  ; 
Last  resort  or  first  aid  ;  Penalty  schedules  ;  P'.ducative  aspects  ; 
Natural  punishment ;   Social  penalties.    Problems.    Readings. 

,  CHAPTER  XXV.   CONSTRUCTIVE  GOVERNMENT  .    .    .    .     2S1 

What  is  order}  Transition  of  government  to  social  control. 
Government  must  vary  with  the  governed.  Success  of  the  demo- 
cratic spirit  in  school.  School  cities.  Liberty  grows  with  capac- 
ity for  it.  Results  of  unnecessary  restrictions.  Values  of  self- 
direction.  Initiating  social  rule.  Self-made  restrictions  —  few 
but  infallible.  Restrictions  imposed  by  authority.  Rules  for  the 
teacher's  protection.  Enforcement  of  laws  by  pupils.  Selection 
of  monitors.  Installation.  Need  of  infallible  persistency.  Social 
control  of  punctuality  and  attendance.  Good  citizenship  in 
school  elections.    Caution.    Problems.    Readings. 

i  CHAPTER  XXVI.    CORRECTIVE  GOVERNMENT 293 

Constructive  versus  corrective  government.  Simple  deprivation. 
Innocent  wrongdoing.  School  justice  never  blind.  Manipulat- 
ing motives  and  diagnosing  conduct.  Dishonesty  a  .symptom,  not 
a  motive.  P'ighting.  Profanity.  Vice  versus  virility.  As  to  the 
girls.  Authority  and  rebellion.  Commands  versus  obedience. 
The  authority  of  fairness  and  courtesy.  Threatening  versus  do- 
ing.    Real  teacher-courage.     Conclusion.    Problems.    Readings. 

-CHAPTER  XXVII.    COMMUNITY  COOPERATION     ....     304 

School  as  the  center  of  education.  The  foundation  of  society. 
The  unifier  of  modern  life.   Community  correlations.   The  press. 


X  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

PAGE 

"  The  movies."  Other  pubHc  entertainments.  School  and  public 
service  ;  reciprocal  benefits.  Systematic  instruction  by  public 
officials.  The  courts.  Legislative  bodies.  Commercial  bodies 
and  welfare  organizations.  Efficiency  of  children  in  public  work. 
15oy  Scouts.  School  savings  bank.  Industries  of  the  commu- 
nity. Educative  materials  as  advertising.  Railroad  cooperation. 
Instruction  by  housekeepers.  Instruction  by  tradesmen.  School- 
home  gardens.  Medical  counsel.  School  credits  for  home  work. 
Values  of  credit  scheme.  Other  plans.  Instruction  by  "  home 
projects."  I'tilizing  neighborhood  knowledge.  Supervision  and 
exhibition  of  home  work.  The  church.  The  obligation  is  mutual. 
Problems.    Readings. 

'CHAPTER  XXVIII.    SCHOOL  EXTENSION 324 

Unrestricted  service  the  new  ideal.  Waste  through  an  idle  plant. 
The  summer  close-down.  Vacation  schools.  All-year  sessions. 
Part-time  study.  Evening  schools.  The  continuation  school 
firmly  established.  Vocational  guidance.  Center  of  community 
life.    Supervision  of  social  activities.    Problems.    Readings. 

CHAPTER  XXIX.    SPECIAL  DAYS  AND  OCCASIONS      .    .     336 

A  teaching  device.  Occasion  gives  teaching  aim.  Honoring  or 
dishonoring.  Recreation  is  not  celebration.  Relative  importance. 
Form  and  aim.  Resulting  attitudes.  Reaching  the  patrons. 
Special  weeks.  Practical  points.  School  fairs.  Power  of  prizes. 
The  parade.     Problems.     Readings. 

CHAPTER  XXX.    THE  TEACHER'S  RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES     347 

Friction  and  lubrication.  Rights  and  duties:  i.  Regulations. 
2.  Contract.  3.  Accepting  position.  4.  Right  to  a  place.  5.  Ten- 
ure. 6.  Indorsements.  7.  Exemption  from  interference.  8.  In 
loco  parentis.  9.  Right  of  punishment.  10.  Courses  and  methods. 
II.  Personal  conduct.  12.  Cooperation.  13.  Courtesy.  Problems. 
Readings. 

/CHAPTER  XXXI.    TEACHER  SELF-MANAGEMENT     ...     356   / 

Self-management  in  school  management.  Academic  preparation. 
Common  facts.  Quacks  and  teachers.  Professional  study.  A 
continuing  process.  Keeping  physically  fit.  How  to  fill  a  full 
day  yet  fuller.  Apportioning  the  day.  Upward  climbing.  A  work 
schedule.  The  folly  of  worry.  Personality  complex  but  attainable. 
"  The  best  policy."  Tact  and  its  uses.  Politeness  —  a  teaching 
power.  Cheerfulness.  Patience.  Courage  to  trust.  Firmness. 
Initiative.  Personal  appearance.  Cleanliness  and  taste.  Friend- 
ship.   "  —  Hut  the  greatest  of  these."    Readings. 

INDEX 371 


SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

CHAPTER   I 
EFFICIENCY  IN  MANAGEMENT 

Scope  of  school  management.  The  field  of  this  subject 
lies  anywhere  between  the  specific  problems  of  instruction  in 
the  narrow  sense  and  the  broad  questions  of  administration 
•and  supervision.  The  lines  of  demarcation  will  necessarily 
fluctuate  and  overlap,  rendering  any  definition  of  the  subject 
arbitrary  and  of  little  use.  Any  topic  may  be  regarded  as 
legitimately  in  this  field  which  aims  to  guide  the  teacher 
in  securing  school  conditions,  spiritual  or  material,  favorable 
to  educative  progress.  We  may  discuss  anything  from  sani- 
tary finger  nails  to  national  ideals,  provided  we  are  thereby 
clarifying  our  conceptions  of  the  school  conditions  under 
which  real  educative  results  are  best  attained. 

To  avoid  mere  wandering  about  in  so  boundless  a  field 
it  is  essential  that  we  be  guided  by  certain  principles.  The 
following  statements  will  serve  as  selective  criteria  for  the 
discussions  which   follow. 

Economy.  Good  management  begins  ivitJi  ciononiv.  The 
management  of  a  school,  as  of  any  other  enterprise,  has 
for  its  prime  purpose  the  securing  of  the  largest  possible  re- 
turns for  the  expenditure  involved.  Money  paid  for  schools 
and  the  yet  more  valuable  time  of  children  are  the  invest- 
ments intrusted  by  the  public  to  the  hands  of  teachers. 
Results,  in  the  form  of  practical  efflciencv,  mental  power, 
character,  and  that  intangible  product  called  culture,  are  the 

I 


2  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

returns  demanded.  Inducing  the  people  to  increase  their 
investment  in  schools  is  an  important  part  of  school  ad- 
ministration, but  the  problem  of  school  management  is  to 
give  them  as  much  as  possible  for  their  money,  —  to  use  no 
money  for  which  value  is  not  returned.  Educators  should 
realize  too  that  this  is  the  surest  way  to  secure  larger  in- 
vestments in  the  educational  plant. 

Demonstrable  results.  The  time  has  come  when  results 
should  be  of  a  more  demonstrable  and  largely  measurable 
sort.  Merely  spending  so  many  hours  a  year  in  "complet- 
ing" time-hallowed  "courses"  in  traditional  "subjects"  can 
no  longer  be  accepted  without  challenge  as  adequate  proof 
of  efficiency.  Nor  should  a  school  or  system  be  measured 
by  tests  of  its  own  devising.  To  encourage  investment  the' 
net  profits  of  an  industry  should  be  measurable  directly  by 
the  investors.  Objective  measures  of  efficiency,  somewhat 
scientific,  are  being  developed  in  the  educational  world. 
However,  an  increasing  ability  to  read  appreciatively,  to  cal- 
culate accurately,  to  converse  intelligently,  to  take  an  interest 
in  the  best  things  of  life  and  to  do  well  the  things  that 
most  need  doing  —  such  results  should  be  almost  as  obvious 
to  parents  and  taxpayers  as  are  dividend  checks. 

Management  as  educative  as  instruction.  The  proecsses 
of  seJiool  management  are  inhej'ently  educative  in  the  high- 
est sense.  It  has  been  said  that  school  is  not  a  preparation 
for  life ;  it  is  life.  We  may  say  that  school  is  a  preparation 
for  life  because  it  is  life.  Certainly  school  life  is  as  real  to 
those  who  are  engaged  in  it  as  is  business  or  industry  or 
society.  It  is  business  and  industry  and  society.  The  moral 
and  social  problems  and  the  jDroljlems  of  practical  work  are 
as  genuine  and  the  motives  as  fundamental  as  any  in  later 
life.  Class  instruction  in  the  formal  subjects  affords  no  dis- 
ciplinary training  of  more  permanent  value  than  the  prac- 
tical and  social   situations  of  the  child's   school   life.     No 


EFFICIENCY  L\  MANAGEMENT  3 

examination  takes  a  pupil's  measure  so  effectively  as  his 
daily  intercourse  with  his  fellow  pupils.  No  habits  derivable 
from  the  problems  of  arithmetic  arc  more  useful  than  those 
which  may  be  derived  from  the  problems  of  getting  along 
with  one's  fellows.  A  fixed  attitude  of  sympathy,  justice, 
and  cooperation  toward  the  individuals  and  the  social  units 
which  constitute  the  school  counts  more  for  good  citizen- 
ship than  the  profoundest  knowledge  of  history  or  the 
rarest  appreciation  of  poetry.  Furthermore,  the  very  in- 
struction itself  can  be  motivated  and  vitalized  in  no  way 
better  than  by  using  the  problems  of  school  organization 
as  object  lessons  or  as  centers  of  correlation.  Good  vian- 
agcincnt  will  seize  upon  cveiy  school  situation  as  a  sig- 
nificant  opportunity  for  instruction  or  ti'aining.  This  by 
no  means  implies  a  "preachy"  attitude  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher.  So  genuine  are  the  problems  of  school  life 
that  the  teacher  needs  only  to  appreciate  them  fully  to 
avoid  any  occasion  for  shamming. 

Pupil's  interest  and  school's  welfare  do  not  conflict. 
The  highest  interests  of  the  school  a)id  of  the  individual 
pupil  are  identical.  Each  problem  of  management  is  to 
be  considered  both  in  the  light  of  the  educative  signifi- 
cance for  the  individual  pupil  and  that  of  the  smooth  run- 
ning of  the  school  machinery.  Particularly  in  matters  of 
discipline  these  interests  seem  often  to  conflict.  Granted 
that,  in  schools  as  in  nations,  the  government  exists  only 
for  the  good  of  the  governed,  there  still  remains  the  dif- 
ficult choice  between  the  view  that  "the  school  is  noth- 
ing; the  child  is  all"  and  the  opinion  that  "the  interests 
of  any  individual  must  give  way  before  those  of  the  group 
of  which  he  is  a  member,"  We  hold  that  either  the  sac- 
rifice of  the  school  for  the  pupil  or  of  the  pupil  for  the 
school  is  but  a  half-solution  of  any  problem  of  manage- 
ment.   It  is  but  a  makeshift  at  best.    When  the  problem 


4  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

is  truly  solved,  the  best  interests  of  both  sehool  and  child 
will  be  found  identical. 

The  form  and  the  spirit.  "The  letter  killeth  ;  the  spirit 
maketh  alive."  ICxery  great  pedagogical  idea,  once  the 
divine  enthusiasm  of  its  discovery  cools  off,  tends  to  settle 
down  in  practice  as  lifeless  formulas,  systems,  and  methods. 
Ruts  and  routine  are  lines  of  least  resistance,  and  all  sorts 
of  school  processes  tend  to  fall  into  them.  In  their  right- 
ful use  they  are  invaluable  ;  elsewhere  they  are  deadening 
and  ruinous.  The  best  policies  of  school  management  soon 
become  formalized  and  spiritless  unless  some  warm-blooded- 
enthusiasm  keeps  everlastingly  vitalizing  the  forms.  Ideals 
of  management  should  have  as  a  central  aim  the  keeping 
of  teachers'  methods  plastic  and  their  ideas  from  petrifying. 
TJic  best  tiling  that  can  be  said  of  a  plan  of  orga)ii::ation 
is  that  it  forces  teachers  to  deal  zvith  ever-varying  sojtls 
and  individnal  needs  rather  than  ivitJi  static  snbjects  and 
systems.  Let  us^  value  any  scheme  of  teaching  as  well  for 
its  reflex  effect  upon  the  teacher  as  for  it&^direct  effect  upon 
the  child  and  the  school. 

Generalizations  and  illustrations.  A  textbook  cannot  well 
be  a  storybook,  and  yet  principles  are  nnderstood,  and  they 
are  remembered,  and  they  can  be  applied  in  jnst  abont 
the  degree  that  they  arc  tJiongJit  out  as  specific  cases.  An 
author  condenses  into  his  general  statements  an  accumu- 
lation of  particular  instances  and  experiences.  The  reader 
will  appreciate  these  statements  in  just  the  measure  that 
he  applies  them  back  again  to  cases.  It  would  be  an  easy 
matter  to  gather  countless  illustrative  stories  and  pictures 
to  illuminate  every  chapter  of  a  work  on  school  manage- 
ment. But  anyone  who  has  been  a  teacher  or  a  pupil,  or 
who  will  intelligently  observe  either,  can  gather  the  requisite 
illustrations  from  his  own  experiences.  The  effort  of  gather- 
ing these  and  the  thinking  involved  in  making  the  application 


EFFICIENCY   IN   MANAGEMENT  5 

of  principles  to  them  is  precisely  the  most  profitable  exer- 
cise involved  in  the  study  of  the  subject.  It  is  the  author's 
part  in  such  a  discussion  to  develop  principles  ;  it  is  the 
reader's  part  to  illustrate  them. 

Conservatism,  criticism,  and  radicalism.  As  to  method 
of  study  we  must  steer  between  two  dangers.  On  the  one 
hand,  there  is  our  natural  affection  for  those  practices  to 
which  we  have  long  been  accustomed  ;  on  the  other,  there 
is  the  fascination  of  glowing  but  untested  visions.  Long 
experience  makes  us  conservative.  When  the  ideas  about 
which  we  have  centered  our  whole  system  of  thinking  are 
attacked,  we  feel  called  to  a  stubborn  defense  as  of  our 
ancient  shrines  against  the  inroads  of  ruthless  vandals. 
But  the  young  are  prone  to  find  little  charm  in  the  prosy 
past  and  see  a  universal  panacea  in  every  plausible  plan. 
The  past  needs  no  defense.  Its  fundamental  soundness  may 
be  taken  for  granted.  Out  of  it  has  come  all  the  good  of 
the  present  and  will  come  all  the  better  of  the  future.  But 
the  true  way  to  honor  the  past  is  to  improve  upon  it.  The 
only  way  to  preserve  it  is  to  search  out  its  weaknesses  and 
remedy  them.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  universal 
solvent  for  pedagogical  difficulties,  nor  will  there  ever  be. 
As  fast  as  one  small  problem  of  school  management  is 
mastered  another  one  will  be  confronted.  Progress  must 
be  slow  and  always  difficult.  Every  slight  contribution  puts 
the  art  on  a  higher  plane  and  every  step  forward  is  infi- 
nitely worth  while  because  it  brings  us  —  not  to  the  goal, 
but  to  the  next  step. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  STUDENTS 

1.  Think  of  this  subject  not  as  something  to  be  prepared  for 
recitation  or  required  for  promotion  but  as  practical  suggestions 
for  making  your  teaching  more  valuable  to  yourself  and  to  those 
you  are  employed  to  serve.    As  you  read,  keep  constant!}-  in  mind 


6  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

the  question,  "  What  is  there  in  this  which  1  can  make  use  of  in 
my  teaching  ? " 

2.  /^eat/  nhcuiys  7c>ifh  a  prohlem  in  mind.  With  tlic  aid  of  the 
sidehcads,  challenge  the  text  as  to  what  it  has  to  offer  on  each 
point  discussed.  At  the  end  of  each  paragraph  or  chapter  raise 
the  question  as  to  what  you  have  got  from  it  worth  remem- 
bering. Re-read  whenever  necessary  to  make  the  points  clear 
enough  for  you  to  sum  them  up  in  your  own  words.  Review 
frequently  the  ideas  that  seem  to  you  most  worth  while. 

3.  Recall  or  imagine  a  special  case  which  illustrates  each  situa- 
tion discussed.  Think  the  statements  into  concrete  instances. 
Preferably  keep  in  mind  some  particular  school  —  one  you  have 
taught  or  attended,  or  one  you  expect  to  teach.  The  problems  at 
the  end  of  each  chapter  are  intended  to  guide  you  in  this  inde- 
pendent application.  Substitute  or  add  other  problems  for  your 
own  solution.  Solve  each  as  genuinely  as  though  you  had  to  meet 
it  in  reality.  Such  thinking  requires  time  and  effort,  but  nothing 
less  can  make  a  good  teacher  out  of  a  poor  one  or  out  of  one  who 
is  not  yet  a  teacher.  The  situations  discussed  are  not  so  rare  but 
that  the  reader  can  furnish  illustrations  as  well  as  the  author. 
Doing  so  will  prove  the  most  useful  phase  of  the  reading. 

4.  Note  that  the  "Problems"  are  not  intended  to  test  the 
reader's  knowledge  of  the  text.  The  thoughtful  reader  will  con- 
stantly organize  and  review  what  he  has  read  and  what  he  has 
thought  about  his  reading  if  he  expects  to  retain  what  he  has 
learned.  The  paragraph  heads,  summarized  in  the  Table  of  Con- 
tents, will  afford  the  necessary  guide  for  rc\icwing  and  testing. 

5.  The  references  given  as  "  Readings  "  have  been  selected 
with  a  view  mainly  to  their  ready  accessibility.  They  are  mostly 
either  well-known  texts  or  else  government  publications  which 
may  be  had  free  or  at  a  nominal  cost.  Read  as  many  of  these  as 
you  can  and  any  of  the  other  parallel  discussions  to  be  found  in 
great  abundance  in  educational  reference  works,  periodicals,  and 
books.  Compare  different  statements  carefully  where  they  do 
not  seem  to  be  in  agreement.  Apparently  conflicting  statements 
are  often  due  to  slightly  different  use  of  technical  words,  or  the 
difference  between  technical  and  pojjular  usages  of  certain  terms. 


EFFICIENCY  IN  MANAGEMENT  7 

Thoroughness  in  such  questions  is  usually  ''"  many-sidedness." 
Understanding  fully  is  not  a  drilling-in  of  the  statement  of  one 
authority  but  seeing  the  matter  in  all  its  aspects. 

6.  After  getting  as  many  opinions  of  a  question  as  practicable 
formulate  your  own  conclusion.  It  is  not  necessary  to  accept  the 
author's  statements,  much  less  to  reject  them.  The  main  thing  is 
to  test  them  out  with  cases  until  you  can  accept  them  or  can  write 
out  statements  which  will  better  stand  your  tests. 

7.  Take  time  to  write  out  in  your  own  words  the  conclusions 
of  most  importance  which  you  reach.  Thus  you  make  them  clear 
and  lasting.  You  can  scarcely  be  sure  of  mastery  otherwise.  Well- 
kept  notebooks  used  constantly  in  reviewing  are  of  inestimable 
value  in  making  what  you  have  learned  permanently  useful. 

8.  Form  the  habit  of  weighing  the  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  any  actual  or  proposed  plan.  Nothing  so  clarifies  thought 
as  to  write  the  "  pros  and  cons  "  in  parallel  columns.  Do  not  be 
content  to  feel  that  a  thing  is  right  or  wrong.  The  feeling  is  a 
mere  vague  idea,  an  unformulated  reason.  Respect  the  feeling  — 
it  may  be  true ;  but  do  not  desist  until  you  can  state  the  reason 
with  precision. 

9.  So  long  as  there  are  reasons  for  and  against  a  given  policy 
—  and  this  is  true  of  all  matters  worthy  of  much  discussion  —  it 
should  be  neither  adopted  nor  rejected  but  should  be  modified. 
The  ideal  policy  will  have  all  the  advantages  and  avoid  the  disad- 
vantages. We  may  never  reach  the  ideal,  but  our  real  progress  will 
be  always  toward  it  and  we  may  approach  infinitely  near.  Avoid 
"  taking  sides  "  and  thus  going  off  at  a  tangent.  Aim  for  the  center 
of  the  problem  which  is  always  somewhere  between  the  two  sides. 

10.  Do  not  fall  into  the  easy  habit  of  ascribing  the  difficulties 
encountered  to  the  faults  of  the  children,  of  the  parents,  of  offi- 
cials, of  teachers,  or  to  lack  of  funds.  The  schools  are  retarded 
not  by  any  one  of  these  but  by  all  of  them.  They  will  be  improved 
not  by  waiting  for  any  one  but  by  improvement  of  all.  Put  no 
faith  in  a  solution  which  seeks  to  better  one  in  spite  of  the  others. 
The  true  solution  involves  progress  in  all  of  these  factors,  but 
the  teacher's  part  begins  at  home.  It  should  not  end  there,  but  it 
must  begin  there. 


8  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

11.  Study  constantly  the  motives  and  conduct  of  children  —  on 
the  street,  at  their  homes,  at  school,  everywhere.  Study  children, 
especially  when  you  are  free  from  the  responsibility  of  directing 
them.  Study  them  sympathetically,  seeking  to  learn  what  they  do 
and  why  they  do  it,  rather  than  what  they  ought  to  do  or  why. 
Ixarn  children  in  order  to  teacJi  tlietn. 

12.  Do  not  seek  for  detailed  directions  or  rulc-of-thumb  regula- 
tions. Strive  rather  for  right  attitudes,  points  of  view%  and  a  solid 
basis  of  knowledge,  concrete  experiences,  and  observations,  and 
organize  these  into  broad  principles.  Rise  above  the  letter  of  rules 
to  the  spirit  of  the  professional  teacher. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

A  glance  backward,  In  ancient  Greece  the  schools  where 
children  were  taught  ordinaril}-  had  no  grounds  of  their 
own,  but  in  every  city  there  was  a  public  gjjiniasiinn,  a  sort 
of  "community  center"  for  the  sport,  recreation,  and  gen- 
eral improvement  of  youths  and  men.  Here  were  large 
covered  and  uncovered  running  tracks,  splendid  groves  in- 
closed by  impressive  colonnades,  and  great  porches  where 
philosophers  and  citizens  were  accustomed  to  gather  for 
disputations  and  a  social  hour.  Wealthy  teachers  in  both 
Greece  and  Rome  had  private  gardens  where  their  rich 
pupils  assembled  for  instruction.  In  medieval  times  the 
monasteries  and  cloistral  schools  were  inclosed  in  walled 
parks  or  gardens,  and  this  ecclesiastical  tradition  is  carried 
out  in  the  modern  college  campus.  Schools  for  children 
were  tolerated  in  some  humble  corners  of  the  sacred  pre- 
cincts, and  this  custom  has  been  perpetuated  in  the  j^leasant 
settings  of  many  luu'opean  elementary  schools. 

The  typical  American  public  school  of  democratic  ideals 
and  plebeian  origin,  founded  on  the  rights  of  all  the  chil- 
dren rather  than  preparation  for  the  clerg)-  or  charity  for 
the  poor,  had  little  thought  expended  on  its  environment. 
In  the  cities  unlovely  graveled  play  areas  were  sometimes 
provided  where  land  was  not  too  expensive.  In  the  coun- 
try some  cheap  quarter-acre  of  otherwise  useless  land  was 
regarded  as  quite  sufficient.  Now,  with  greater  wealth  and 
a  clearer  conception  of  the  future  of  public  education,  our 
cities   arc   buying   back    land    at   enormous   cost   to   convert 

9 


lO  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

into  parks  and  playgrounds,  primarily  for  the  school  chil- 
dren, even  though  not  contiguous  to  the  schools.  These 
grounds  are  being  equipped  with  elaborate  apparatus  and 
supervised  by  trained  instructors,  making  them  an  integral 
and  expensive  part  of  the  educational  plant.  The  bare  jail- 
yard  sort  of  ground  open  only  at  recess  time  is  being  dis- 
placed by  the  permanent,  well-equipped  play  park,  open  to 
ever)-  child  and  adult  wlio  will  make  proper  use  of  it,  day- 
time and  evening,  Saturdays,  holidays,  and  vacation  times. 
We  are  getting  back  to  the  Athenian  gymnasium  ideal  but 
with  the  child  as  the  center.  In  the  country  districts  a  move- 
ment has  begun  which  will  ultimately  give  to  every  standard 
school  ample  space  not  only  for  playgrounds,  groves,  and 
gardens  but  also  for  a  permanent  teacher's  home. 

Central  location.  A  first  consideration  in  the  selection 
of  a  site  for  the  school  building  is  its  central  location  with 
reference  to  the  population  which  it  is  to  serve.  Due  regard 
must  be  had  to  probable  areas  of  development  and  shifting 
population,  to  other  present  and  prospective  schools,  to  ac- 
cessibility of  lines  of  travel,  and,  especially  in  rural  sections, 
to  present  or  prospective  routes  of  pupil  transportation. 

Sanitary  surroundings.  IMore  important  than  any  small 
difference  in  centrality  is  a  location  sufficiently  removed 
from  the  noise,  dust,  smoke,  and  physical  dangers  of  fac- 
tories, railroads,  or  busy  streets.  A  stagnant  pool,  a  swamp, 
a  stable  or  other  source  of  disagreeable  odors  or  breeding 
place  for  noxious  insects  and  germs,  is  a  disgraceful  envi- 
ronment for  an  enlightened  community  to  tolerate  in  the 
school  life  of  its  children. 

The  teacher's  responsibility.  But  teachers  do  not  ordi- 
narily locate  schools,  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  a  large 
proportion  of  American  schools  are  badly  situated.  There- 
fore the  part  of  the  teacher  is  to  make  a  virtue  of  necessity 
and  seize  upon  the  blunders  of  the  past  generation  to  afford 


THE  SCHOOL  GROUNDS  ii 

object  lessons  and  training  for  the  next.     Some  teaching 
opportunities  arising  from  bad  location  are  as  follows : 

1.  Mapping  the  district  and  determining  the  center  of 
population  and  the  relative  desirability  of  various  possible 
school  sites.  Such  work  constitutes  an  unusually  interest- 
ing "  group-project  "  for  classes  in  map  drawing,  geography, 
and  arithmetic.  Many  schools  are  located  by  school  boards 
in  ignorance  of  just  such  data  as  a  grammar  or  high-school 
grade  might  assemble  as  a  profitable  class  exercise. 

2.  Where  the  location  of  the  school  imperils  health  or 
safety,  the  teacher  has  no  choice  but  to  undertake  the  edu- 
cation of  the  community  as  an  incident  to  the  education 
of  the  children.  Public  meetings,  the  press,  and  the  pulpit 
are  reliable  allies  in  arousing  public  opinion  on  these  ques- 
tions. Where  a  state  law  covers  the  case,  it  should  be 
invoked  by  the  teacher,  if  necessary,  against  the  community 
for  the  community's  good.  Health  authorities  mav  be  called 
upon  when  school  authorities  are  persistently  negligent. 

3.  It  may  well  happen  that  where  protests  and  injunctions 
would  fail  to  get  a  mire  drained  or  a  stable  yard  cleaned  up, 
a  vivid  study  of  real  mosquitoes  and  flies,  of  their  metamor- 
phoses and  breeding  habits,  of  the  germs  they  carry  and 
the  diseases  they  cause,  may  result  in  a  campaign  that  will 
move  the  school  or  rid  the  place  of  malaria  and  typhoid 
and  antagonize  no  one.  A  microscopic  study  of  dust-laden 
atmosphere  or  of  impure  water  would  insure  interest  in 
their  contents. 

4.  Where  pupils  are  unduly  exposed  to  danger  of  acci- 
dent, a  wide-awake  teacher  would  assuredly  have  some  inter- 
ested railroad  man,  policeman,  or  factory  superintendent 
make  vivid  to  the  children  how  accidents  occur  and  how 
they  are  to  be  avoided.  In  such  an  environment  "safety 
first"  and  "  first  aid  to  the  injured  "  shcnild  take  precedence 
in  the  curriculum  over  any  "basic  subjects." 


12  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

5.  Such  instruction  must  be  prolonged  into  training. 
Knowledge  must  crystallize  into  habits.  A  dusty  or  smoky 
environment  obligates  the  teacher  to  oi^tain  somehow  ample 
lavatory  facilities  and  to  insist  upon  clean  hands  until  these 
become  habitual ;  to  have  each  child  provided  with  a  desk 
cloth  and  to  train  him  in  the  use  of  it.  The  prevalence  of 
flies  implies  persistent  training  in  trapping,  "  swatting," 
screening,   and   "  clean-up  "   movements. 

The  space  required.  The  size  of  the  lot  should  be  as 
great  as  possible  in  the  city,  and  at  least  three  or  four  acres 
in  the  country.  There  should  be  provision  for  a  dignified, 
uncrowded  approach  in  the  front  with  liberal  grass  plots  and 
possibly  flower  beds.  There  should  be  three  pla\grounds 
separated  unobtrusive! \'  by  the  buildings,  paths,  and  shrub- 
bery ;  one  for  the  large  boys,  one  for  the  large  girls,  and 
one  for  the  little  children.  The  boys'  ground  should  have 
room  for  a  baseball  diamond,  becoming  a  "  gridiron  "  in 
season,  and  for  heavy  gymnastic  apparatus.  The  girls 
require  space  for  tennis  courts  and  for  free  play  as  well  as 
shady  places  for  walking  and  sitting.  The  little  ones  need 
room  for  swings,  seesaws,  and  the  like,  as  well  as  for 
running  and  hiding  games.  There  should  be  liberal  sjxice 
for  school  gardens.  Where  needed,  hitching  sheds  should 
be  provided  for  those  who  drive  to  school.  A  most  attrac- 
tive and  desirable  feature  is  a  simple  summerhouse  which 
can  serve  as  an  open-air  schoolroom. 

Using  disadvantages.  Needless  to  say,  it  is  the  rarely 
fortunate  teacher  who  finds  all  these  conditions  in  the  play- 
ground of  his  school.  But  it  is  a  basis  of  our  discussion 
that  good  teachers  are  ever  on  the  lookout  for  "  the  bless- 
ings of  adversity  "  and  zealous  to  convert  them  into  teach- 
ing opportunities.  Where  adequate  playgrounds  are  lacking, 
an  alert  teacher  will  combine  with  the  children  to  secure 
some  place  in  the  neighborhood  for  the  iHU'i)ose.    Instead 


THE  SCHOOL  GROUNDS  13 

of  consuming  limitless  teaching  energy  during  school  hours 
in  repressing  an  unsatisfied  play  tendency  or  punishing  chil- 
dren for  playing  where  they  should  not,  the  wise  teacher  will 
utilize  the  desire  for  a  playground  to  motivate  the  most  edu- 
cative work  of  getting  one.  There  are  probably  neighboring 
lots  which  can  be  cleaned  up  and  improved  in  fair  exchange 
for  the  privilege  of  playing  upon  them.  There  is  fine  train- 
ing in  self-control  and  in  the  social  suppression  of  lawless 
ones  among  the  pupils  in  the  simple  fact  that,  by  the  terms 
of  a  bargain  with  the  owner,  damage  to  the  adjoining  prop- 
erty or  any  objectionable  disturbance  arising  from  the  play 
will  automatically  cancel  the  privilege.  The  school  offers  no 
better  opportunities  for  developing  social  responsibility  than 
a  playground  which  is  secured  upon  the  condition  of  its 
being  properly  kept  and  controlled  by  the  pupils.  Here  they 
learn  that  by  natural  rather  than  arbitrary  laws  privileges  are 
contingent  upon  their  right  use. 

Where  vacant  lots  are  not  available,  some  cities  are  setting 
aside  certain  blocks  on  the  less-used  streets  as  play  areas 
during  specified  hours.  During  this  time  traffic  is  diverted 
to  other  channels.  In  return  for  this  recognition  of  their 
rights  the  children  practice  the  fundamental  lessons  of  good 
citizenship  by  respecting  the  rights  of  the  public.  They 
learn  that  it  pays  them  to  be  courteous  to  passers-by,  con- 
siderate of  residents,  helpful  to  the  authorities,  and  to  be 
regarded  as  desirable,  coiqjcrating  citizens. 

Beautifying  sensibly.  Where  adequate  land  has  been 
provided  there  is  still  the  j:)r()blem  of  making  it  attractive. 
The  Arbor  Day  movement  attacked  this  problem  years  ago. 
Numerous  interesting  bulletins  with  instructions  have  been 
issued  on  this  sul)ject.  Only  a  few  general  suggestions  may 
be  attempted  hero. 

I.  Do  not  begin  the  improvements  with  criticisms  of  vour 
predecessors  and  inauguration  of  elaborate  reforms.    Rather 


14  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

find  by  careful  investigation  just  what  the  predecessors  tried 
to  do  and,  if  practicable,  do  it.  Build  upon  the  foundations 
already  laid, 

2.  INIake  only  the  sort  of  improvements  that  are  reasonably 
sure  to  be  permanently  successful  and  enjoyable.  ""  Fussy" 
structures  which  are  soon  broken  down,  undertakings  half 
finished  and  abandoned,  trees  that  do  not  live  and  things  that 
children  care  nothing  for,  instill  most  deplorable  lessons  and 
counteract  the  best  teaching  of  civic  pride  or  practical  aesthetics. 

3.  Utility  first.  Provide  liberally  for  playgrounds,  walks, 
and  gardens.  Plant  primarily  for  serviceable  screens,  wind- 
breaks, and  shade.  Taboo  perishing  flower  beds.  Use  hardy 
vines  —  ivy,  honeysuckle,  climbing  roses,  and  Virginia  creeper 
— to  cover  unsightly  walls  and  fences.  Sheds  and  outhouses 
may  be  screened  by  vine-covered  lattice  work  or  clumps  of 
evergreen  shrubbery,  converting  the  spots  offensive  to  re- 
finement into  places  of  beauty. 

4.  Better  than  fences  or  trimmed  hedges  are  dense  masses 
of  shrubbery  at  the  corners  and  artistically  distributed  along 
the  borders,  low  in  front  and  high  where  screens  are  wanted 
and  along  the  background. 

5.  Provide  walks  where  they  will  be  walked  upon.  Right 
angles  are  seldom  either  useful  or  graceful.  Whatever  may 
be  said  of  the  Boston  streets,  the  best  "  laying  off "  is  often 
done  by  following  approximately  the  paths  which  the  chil- 
dren have  made.  They  are  agreeable  curv^es  and  go  just 
where  they  are  needed.  Sturdy  clumps  of  shrubbery  at 
strategic  points  will  prevent  the  making  of  too  many  paths. 
With  the  help  of  the  larger  boys  granolithic  walks  may  be 
laid  at  small  cost. 

6.  In  planting,  avoid  straight  lines  except  for  marking 
boundaries.  Clusters  of  shade  trees,  clumps  and  masses  of 
shrubbery,  and  broad,  irregular  open  spaces  contribute  more 
to  beauty  as  well  as  to  service. 


THE  SCHOOL  GROUNDS  15 

7.  Plant  vigorous,  native  trees,  vines,  and  shrubs  which 
require  Httle  or  no  care.  The  growing  season  is  during 
vacation,  when  most  school  grounds  have  no  care, 

8.  Particularly  study  the  possibilities  of  natural  features. 
A  little  thought  may  convert  a  rock  or  stump  into  a  thing 
of  great  beauty  or  utility,  while  a  spring  or  brook  is  a  gold 
mine  of  opportunity.  Even  a  mosquito-breeding  pool  may 
be  made  into  a  marvel  of  interest  and  attractiveness.  Do 
not  sacrifice  a  single  tree  or  shrub  without  long  considera- 
tion. The  school  yard  should  grow,  as  a  house  becomes  a 
home,  by  long  planning  and  affectionate  executing,  little  by 
little.  The  life  of  each  child  through  many  school  genera- 
tions may  be  woven  into  the  making  of  the  yard. 

9.  Transplanting  is  a  most  educative  activity  for  children 
to  participate  in,  but  it  is  a  complex  art  and  cannot  success- 
fully be  done  in  ignorance.  Much  study  of  native  plants, 
and  of  the  soils,  seasons,  and  conditions  favorable  for  trans- 
planting, should  precede  any  actual  digging.  It  is  cheaper 
to  pay  for  expert  supervision  than  to  have  plants  die. 

Cleaning  up  and  keeping  up.  The  abiding  problem  of  the 
school  yard,  however,  is  one  of  cleanliness  and  the  conser\-a- 
tion  of  improvements  already  made.  This  cannot  be  trusted 
to  janitors.  The  responsibility  rests  upon  the  teachers,  but 
if  the  children  do  not  have  a  part,  an  unexcelled  educative 
opportunity  will  be  missed.  School-yard  ideals  of  serviceable 
beauty  and  school-formed  habits  of  thrifty  neatness  ought  to 
be  reflected  in  many  homes  of  the  community.  The  sort  of 
standards  that  are  reflected  may  be  guessed  in  many  Ameri- 
can communities  where  the  school  premises,  from  the  dilapi- 
dated front  gate  to  the  unspeakable  outhouses,  offend  every 
sense  of  decency. 

An  enthusiastic  ""  clean-up  day "  at  the  start  may  be 
desirable  if  conditions  are  very  bad.  Parents  mav  be  invited 
to    participate    if    needed.      But    a    necessity    for    repeated 


i6  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

"  clean-ups "  is  certainly  not  creditable.  Organization  for 
keeping  things  up  counts  for  nuich  more.  Receptacles  should 
be  provided  for  trash,  and  this  involves  the  responsibility  for 
unending  persistence  in  seeing  that  they  are  used  and  regu- 
larly emptied.  They  should  be  inconspicuous  but  placed 
where  they  will  be  used.  Custodians  elected  at  intervals  by 
the  pupils,  or  appointed  as  reward  for  merit,  should  have 
oversight  of  the  grounds  and  see  that  they  are  always  left 
in  as  good  condition  as  they  are  found  or  better.  No 
child  or  teacher  is  too  good  to  help  clean  up  tiie  yard  he 
occupies  —  certainly  not  one  who  is  none  too  good  to  help 
litter  it  up.  The  school  }ard  is  a  laboratory  for  teaching  civic 
tidiness.  It  is  the  most  obvious  advertisement  of  the  kind 
of  influence  the  teachers  are  exerting  in  the  lives  of  children. 
Each  child  should  likewise  come  to  realize  from  this  labora- 
tory that  ills  home  yard  is  a  glaring  advertisement  to  the 
community  of  his  famil)''s  tastes  and  standards. 

Where  decency  is  in  danger.  Iwen  with  the  recent  effec- 
tive campaigns  against  insanitary  school  privies,  disgrace- 
ful thousands  of  them  still  outrage  the  refinement  and 
commonest  decency  of  American  rural  children.  The  self- 
respecting  teacher  will  tolerate  no  laxness  in  this  matter. 
Sanitary  and  sightly  provision  must  be  made  by  the  authori- 
ties. Laws  and  the  regulations  of  health  or  educational 
authorities  should  be  invoked  to  compel  compliance  so  far 
as  may  be  necessary.  Scliool  should  open  with  conditions 
as  nearly  like  those  of  a  refined  home  as  possible.  Quiet, 
frank  talks  with  the  children,  boys  and  girls  separately,  will 
probably  be  necessary  if  school  traditions  are  bad.  Such 
talks  should  be  constructive  rather  than  critical  —  of  refined 
conditions  and  high  ideals,  of  the  standards  of  ladies  and 
gentlemen,  of  confidence  and  cooperation.  The  aid  of  jani- 
tors and  older  children  must  be  enlisted  to  secure  constant 
watchfulness    against    the    beginnings    of    uncleanliness    or 


THE  SCHOOL  GROUNDS  17 

impropriety.  Whatever  the  cost,  every  bad  tendency  must  be 
detected  and  crushed  at  the  start.  In  one  school  an  un- 
speakably bad  tradition  of  filthy  writing  and  drawing  on  the 
basement  walls  was  entirely  and  permanently  eliminated  in  a 
few  weeks  by  means  of  plain  talks,  followed  up  with  records 
kept  by  every  teacher  of  the  time  each  child  was  out  of  the 
room,  together  with  a  system  of  inspections  of  the  premises 
made  almost  hourly  for  tlie  first  few  days. 

It  is  far  from  easy  to  eradicate  deep-rooted  customs  and 
build  standards  of  refinement  for  a  whole  school  at  once. 
But  it  has  been  done,  it  can  be  done,  and  the  teacher  worth 
while  will  do  it,  however  hard  it  may  be.  No  true  teacher 
is  above  doing  whatever  may  be  necessary  to  get  right  ideals 
and  customs  established  in  his  school.  Rather,  he  is  above 
neglecting  it.  The  real  test  comes  in  keeping  everlastingly 
at  it.  Good  impulses  are  quickly  aroused  in  a  school,  but 
habits  are  fixed  only  by  incessant  vigilance. 

PROBLEMS 

Make  a  study  of  some  school  yard,  preferably  the  one  with 
which  you  are  most  familiar,  as  follows : 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  detrimental  features  of  the  site. 

2.  Which  of  these  may  be  remedied  by  the  teacher  and  the 
school  ?    Propose  plans  for  these  remedies. 

3.  Which  may  be  remedied  by  the  School  ]>oard  ?  Sketch 
plans  and  estimate  costs. 

4.  How  may  each  of  these  disadvantages  be  utilized  to  teach 
some  important  lesson  effectively  ? 

5.  Make  a  diagram  or  write  a  description  of  the  school  vard 
with  its  environment  as  it  is  and  another  as  it  should  be. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  hardy  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines  for  school-yard 
use  in  your  neighborhood. 

7.  Make  an  abstract  of  the  state  and  local  laws  and  regulations 
regarding  school  sites  and  premises. 


I8  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 


READINGS 


Burks.    Health  and  the  School,  chap.  xv. 

Bi'RR.AGE  and  Bailev.    School  Sanitation  and  Decoration,  chap.  i. 

CuLTER  and  Stone.   The  Rural  School,  chap.  ii. 

Curtis.    Play  and  Recreation,  chaps,  iv,  v. 

Dresslar.    School  Hygiene,  chaps,  ii,  iii. 

Egglestox  and  Bruere.  The  Work  of  the  Rural  School,  chaps,  viii,  ix. 

FoGHT.    American  Rural  School,  chap.  ix. 

Kerx.    Among  Country  Schools,  chap.  iii. 

Search.    An  Ideal  School,  chap.  v. 

Seerley.    The  Country  School,  chap.  vi. 

Bulletins,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 

Bullcim  No.^,  1910,  "American  Schoolhouses "'  (Dresslar). 

Bulletin  Ao.  12,  191 4,  "Rural  Schoolhouses  and  Grounds"  (Dresslar). 

Bulletin  No.  2S.  1 91  2,  "  Cultivating  School  Grounds  in  Wake  County  " 
(Judd). 

Bulletin  lYo.  40,   191 3  {iVo.  16,    191 2),   "The  Reorganized  School 
I'layground  "  (Curtis). 

Bulletin  N^o.  //,    191 4.    "Sanitary   Survey  of   Schools  of   Orange 
County"  (Flannagan). 
Public-Health  Bulletin,  Government  Printing  Office 

Bulletin  A'o.  j/,  "  The  Sanitary  Privy  "  (Stiles). 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 

Bulletin  A'o.  218,  1905,  "The  School  Garden." 

Bulletin  No.  IJ4,  1907,  "  Tree-Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds." 


CHAPTER   III 

BUILDINGS 

In  retrospect.  School  architecture  is  a  distinctly  modern 
problem.  The  Greek  cities,  we  have  said,  had  imposing 
gymnasia  for  physical  exercise  and  training.  The  Spartans 
had  barracks  in  which  the  boys  lived  together  after  the  age 
of  seven,  but  they  had  no  use  for  classrooms.  There  were 
large  buildings  devoted  to  school  purposes  in  Greece,  but 
they  were  private  enterprises  and  represented  no  effort  to 
adapt  architecture  to  educational  needs.  One  at  Chios,  in 
500  B.C.,  fell  and  killed  119  of  the  120  pupils.  Pausanias 
tells  us  that  sixty  children  were  buried  in  the  ruins  of  a 
school  building  which  was  pulled  down,  Samson-like,  by  an 
athlete  who  was  crazed  by  defeat.  Usually  rooms  for  ele- 
mentary schools  were  provided  by  the  teachers  in  some  public 
or  private  building,  in  some  unused  space  on  the  porches, 
or  in  out-of-the-way  corners  of  groves  or  market  places. 
In  Rome  the  same  custom  prevailed.  Temporary  booths 
{tabcniae)  or  lean-to  sheds  opening  on  the  public  street  were 
constructed.  Children  sat  upon  the  floor,  where  there  was 
one,  or  upon  the  stones  of  the  streets.  The  more  exclusive 
schools  of  the  later  period  seem  to  have  been  verandas  or 
annexes  to  the  better  class  of  buildings  and  were  provided 
with  benches  and  often  adorned  with  valuable  works  of  art. 

Medieval  origins.  Modern  schools,  however,  trace  their 
ancestry  not  to  classic  but  to  medieval  times.  Then  all 
schools  were  of  religious  origin  and  mostly  conducted  as 
adjuncts  to  the  monasteries  or  cathedrals,  as  we  have  seen. 
That    traditional    school    architecture    has    descended    from 

19 


20  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

ecclesiastical  sources  is  evidenced  in  the  still  common  ves- 
tigial towers,  imitative  of  early  churches  but  useless  in  school 
economy ;  in  the  arrangement  adapted  to  a  speaker  and  lis- 
teners rather  than  to  a  company  of  active  and  cooperative 
doers;  in  the  meager  windows  distributed  with  reference  to 
external  symmetry  rather  than  to  lighting  or  ventilation  ; 
and  in  tlie  forbidding  monastic  impression  everywhere  domi- 
nant. Some  church  schools  and  the  conscr\ative  universities 
still  deviate  little  from  the  original  ecclesiastical  type. 

The  Lancastrian  schools  of  a  century  ago  were  perhaps 
the  first  attempt  to  construct  buildings  specially  adapted  for 
the  needs  of  elementary  schools.  These  were  lofty  halls 
with  provision  for  as  many  as  a  thousand  children  in  a  single 
room.  They  were  provided  with  windows  definitely  intended 
for  adequate  light  and  ventilation  and  were  equipped  with  the 
peculiar  furniture  and  paraphernalia  of  monitorial  instruction. 

Modern  tendencies.  With  the  growing  recognition  of  the 
state's  permanent  responsibility  for  the  education  of  all  the 
children  there  has  been  some  progress  in  the  character  of 
school  buildings,  but  only  within  the  past  few  years  has  the 
I  problem  had  the  best  thought  of  architects  and  sanitary  ex- 
perts./^ So  new  is  the  spirit  and  so  different  are  the  aims 
of  the  modern  school  from  any  of  its  predecessors,  so  com- 
prehensive are  the  advances  in  scientific  knowledge  of  its 
needs,  that  nothing  which  is  merely  traditional  in  school 
structure  or  arrangement  is  worth  conserving.  The  whole 
problem  is  being  taken  up  ah  initio,  and  here,  at  least, 
we  need  have  no  reverence  for  the  old.  Externally,  city 
school  buildings  liave  been  losing  their  somberness  and  tak- 
ing on  suggestions  of  the  office  building  or  even  the  modern 
factory.  In  rural  communities  the  miserable  affairs  which 
resembled  nothing  so  much  as  primitive  stables  and  corn- 
cribs  are  giving  way  to  unattractive  imitations  of  city  schools 
or   to   quite    attractive    imitations   of    country   cottages   and 


BUILDINGS  21 

bungalows.  In  progressive  small  towns  the  school  is  rapidly 
coming  to  be  the  typical  "show-building"  to  which  strangers 
are  directed  with  pride.  Size,  however,  is  by  no  means  the 
chief  factor  in  beauty  and  attractiveness.  Modest  one-room 
and  two-room  buildings  in  pleasing  rural  settings  may  be 
made  very  beautiful  at  a  low  cost.  In  fact  there  is  ver)' 
much  to  recommend  the  housing  of  rather  large  schools  in 
clusters  of  one-  and  two-room  units  connected  by  attractive 
colonnades. 

The  standard  classroom.  Aside  from  fluctuating  considera- 
tions of  taste  and  the  abiding  one  of  economy,  the  problem 
of  school  building  is  primarily  one  of  assembling  standard- 
ized rooms.  The  accepted  principles  have  to  do  mainly  with 
the  classroom  units.  The  ideal  for  a  grade  room  is  very 
definite.  It  is  usually  fixed  at  about  twenty-eight  feet  wide 
and  thirty-two  feet  long.  The  dimensions  may  be  changed 
a  couple  of  feet  cither  way,  if  desired,  but  the  proportions 
should  not  be  different.  Such  a  room  will  conveniently 
accommodate  forty  pupils.  Larger  classes  should  never  be 
permitted,  and  hence  no  provision  should  be  made  for  them. 
Smaller  classes  are  always  likely  to  grow.  Besides  introduc- 
ing difficulties  of  class  control  by  the  teacher,  a  longer  room 
causes  difficulties  of  vision  and  hearing  for  tlic  pupils  at  the 
rear  ;  and  a  wider  room,  for  those  at  the  front  corners.  The 
height  should  be  not  less  than  eleven  feet  nor  more  than 
thirteen  feet.  A  higher  room  is  harder  to  heat,  ventilate, 
and  decorate  effectively  and  undulx-  increases  the  cost  of 
construction. 

Corridors.  School  corridors  should  be  well  lighted  and 
abundantly  ventilated.  Hiey  should  have  radiators  or  regis- 
ters adapted  for  drying  or  warming  the  feet  of  the  children 
but  should  otherwise  be  unhcated.  This  will  aid  in  ventilat- 
ing the  rooms  and  afford  a  healthful  change  of  temixTature 
without  the  disadvantages  incident  to  going  outside  in  stormy 


22  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

weather  or  cooling  the  classroom  too  much.  Corridors  should 
never  be  less  than  twelve  feet  in  width  and  for  large  build- 
ings must  be  considerably  wider.  No  seats,  lockers,  cloak- 
rooms, doorways,  or  stairways  should  interfere  with  the  free 
passageway. 

Doors.  Perfectly  plain  veneered  doors  are  very  attractive 
and  are  rapidly  gaining  in  popularity,  llicy  are  made  with- 
out panels  or  any  irregularities  of  surface  and  hence  catch 
no  dust.  Transoms  are  dust-catchers  of  the  worst  sort  and 
should  be  taboo.  No  part  of  a  building  should  be  dependent 
on  them  for  light  or  ventilation  nor  can  teachers  be  trusted 
to  make  right  use  of  them.  Classroom  doors  should  open 
inward.  Neither  double-swing  doors  nor  any  that  open  into 
the  corridors  are  satisfactory,  A  first  principle  of  fire  and 
panic  protection  is  that  all  outside  doors  must  open  outzvard 
and  be  so  fastened  that  they  can  never  shut  even  the 
smallest  child  helplessly  inside.  Outer  doors  are  now  com- 
monly equipped  with  automatic  latches  so  constructed  that 
the  slightest  push  on  the  inside  of  the  door  will  open  it 
even  when  locked  against  intrusion  from  outside. 

Stairways.  There  should  be  at  least  two  stairways,  pref- 
erably at  opposite  ends  of  the  building,  both  for  conven- 
ience in  passing  the  lines  of  children  up  and  down  and  for 
protection  against  fire.  Ascending  drafts  in  case  of  fire 
inevitably  follow  an  open  stairway,  so  that  even  though  it 
be  itself  fireproof,  a  single  stairway  is  likely  to  be  the  first 
part  of  the  building  to  become  impassable.  Children  of  the 
upper  floors  can  pass  up  or  down  two  stairways  in  just  half 
the  time  they  require  with  one.  Even  for  routine  purposes 
the  cost  of  an  extra  stairway  is  more  than  justified.  In  emer- 
gencies it  is  invaluable.  Where  room  is  scarce  the  double 
or  intertwining  stair  doubles  the  capacity  in  the  same  space. 
Long,  straight  flights  should  be  avoided.  They  arc  seriously 
fatiguing  for  pupils  ascending  and  dangerous  for  the  child 


BUILDINGS  23 

who  may  slip  or  be  pushed  over  in  descending.  Flights  of 
less  than  six  steps  are  ol^jectionable  in  that  they  encourage 
jumping  from  one  landing  to  the  next.  Winding  stairs  are 
intolerable.  All  turnings  must  be  made  by  broad  landings. 
Doors  must  never  open  on  stairs  or  landings. 

Cloakrooms.  For  satisfactory  cloakrooms  the  requirements 
are  (i)  complete  oversight  by  each  teacher  of  his  own  pupils, 
(2)  protection  against  thievery,  (3)  light,  (4)  reasonable 
warmth,  (5)  very  thorough  ventilation,  and  (6)  economy  in 
space  and  construction  of  the  building.  Converting  the  cor- 
ridor into  a  cloakroom  spoils  the  one  without  successfully 
obtaining  the  other.  A  good  plan  is  to  have  a  narrow  room 
at  the  front  of  each  classroom  with  two  doorways  opening 
into  it.  In  such  case  it  is  well  to  have  the  foul-air  exit  in 
the  cloakroom  and  placed  high  so  that  the  air  passing  from 
the  room  out  through  the  cloakroom  thus  affords  a  con- 
stant drying  current  through  the  wraps.  There  should  be  at 
least  one  small  window  in  the  cloakroom.  An  ingenious  and 
satisfactory  plan  is  a  long,  cupboard-like  closet  placed  in  the 
partition  wall  next  to  the  flues  and  occupying  only  the  same 
depth  as  the  flues.  By  means  of  sliding  doors  the  entire  area 
of  the  closet  opens  to  the  classroom,  bringing  all  the  coat 
and  hat  hooks,  umbrella  racks,  overshoe  shelves,  etc.  within 
easy  reach.  When  the  wraps  are  in  place  the  sliding  doors 
are  closed  and  blackboards  on  their  surfaces  are  available. 
Below  the  blackboards  these  doors  contain  gratings,  by 
means  of  which  the  air  passes  from  the  room  up  through 
the  wraps  to  the  outlet  into  the  foul-air  duct  at  the  top  of  the 
closet.  The  doors  are  made  to  run  easily  and  noiselessly 
and  are  managed  by  monitors.  The  entire  cloakroom  is 
closed  except  when  in  full  view  of  the  teacher  and  of  the 
entire  room.  During  school  hours  the  wraps  are  being 
thoroughly  dried  and  aired.  Cloakrooms  of  this  sort  could 
readily  be  added  to  many  old  buildings. 


24  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Toilets.  When  toilet  rooms  are  located  in  a  basement 
there  is  even  more  urgent  need  of  careful  oversight,  clean- 
liness, and  thorough  ventilation  than  when  at  a  distance 
from  the  building.  It  is  a  long  step  forward  to  have  them 
distributed  on  the  several  Hoors  of  the  building,  with  still 
better  equipment  and  with  ideals  of  cleanliness  more  nearly 
like  those  of  the  best  homes.  By  arranging  in  stacks,  that 
is,  with  those  of  each  floor  directly  over  those  of  the  floor 
below,  the  cost  of  space  and  of  plumbing  is  not  greatly 
increased.  In  a  few  buildings  separate  toilets  have  been 
provided  opening  off  the  cloakroom  of  each  classroom,  and 
the  most  encouraging  reports  have  been  given  of  the  effect 
of  this  arrangement  upon  the  morale  of  the  school.  In  any 
plan  the  aim  is  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  congregating 
places  for  the  children,  to  keep  them  under  the  easy  super- 
vision of  the  teachers,  and  to  make  them  such  as  will  main- 
tain the  highest  standards  of  refinement  for  the  community. 

Are  children  destructive  ?  hlxcept  on  the  occasions  when 
one  may  advise  with  reference  to  the  construction  of  a  new 
building  or  secure  modifications  of  an  old  one,  the  teacher's 
opportunity  in  the  matter  of  buildings  is  in  training  the  chil- 
dren in  the  care  and  protection  of  them.  Among  American 
children  generally  there  has  been  an  appalling  lack  of  re- 
spect for  paint,  plaster,  and  window  glass.  Some  children 
seem  to  lack  the  capacity  to  get  about  in  any  house  with- 
out injuring  it.  Many  feel  that  a  school  building  belongs  to 
no  one.  They  have  no  interest  in  its  preservation  but  find 
a  peculiar  pleasure  in  defacing  and  injuring  it  as  much  as 
they  dare.  This  is  not  due  to  any  inherent  "  destructiveness  " 
or  willful  love  of  doing  wrong  but  to  bad  school  traditions 
and  to  the  suggestion  given  by  the  dilapidated  and  ill-kept 
conditions  of  the  buildings.  A  broken  windowpane  is  very 
suggestive.  If  it  does  not  suggest  a  new  one  in  its  place,  it 
will  suggest  another  broken  one  by  its  side.    Any  ambitious 


BUILDINGS  25 

boy  likes  the  distinction  of  having  made  his  mark  in  his 
Httle  world,  and  if  he  cannot  get  it  on  the  school  records  in 
a  conspicuous  place  he  will  try  the  school  walls.  To  him 
there  is  genuine  achievement  in  leaving  an  inscription  where 
all  comers  must  see  it. 

The  remedy.  The  remedy  for  this  state  of  affairs  —  and 
herein  is  the  teacher's  responsibility  —  is  twofold  :  first,  that 
the  building,  however  old  and  unworthy,  be  kept  clean  and 
free  from  all  those  disfigurements  which  indicate  vandalism  ; 
and,  second,  that  with  all  the  devices  of  instruction  and 
training  there  be  developed  in  the  pupils  an  interest  in 
the  building  and  a  pride  in  its  appearance.  The  child  who 
has  actively  contributed  to  the  cleaning  or  calcimining  of 
walls,  whether  by  his  labor  or  his  pennies,  will  vigorously 
defend  them  against  further  defacement.  The  boy  who 
takes  a  pride  in  putting  his  scrawls  or  carvings  on  a  public 
wall  will  take  a  far  greater  pride  in  putting  a  coat  of  paint 
there.  Children  do  not  like  to  injure  walls  and  desks.  They 
simply  like  to  do  something  to  them.  Though  they  do  not 
look  very  far  ahead,  they  want  to  see  the  results  of  their  ac- 
tivities. Almost  any  boy  would  rather  help  put  a  windowpane 
in  than  to  break  one  out. 

"  Destructiveness  "  diverted.  Let  us,  then,  utilize  the 
children  as  far  as  possible  in  improving  the  building  and 
keeping  it  in  repair  and  in  an  attracti\-e  condition.  Tr)-  to 
find  something  for  each  of  them  to  do,  even  the  smallest 
—  but  especially  the  "mischievous,  destructive"  ones. 
Within  reasonable  limits  we  can  well  afford  to  use  regular 
school  time  for  this  purpose.  The  least  appreciation  of 
child  nature  will  indicate  that  we  cannot  soid  children  to 
these  tasks,  we  must  lead  them  ;  they  are  happy  to  work 
%vit}i  us  when  they  will  not  work  for  us.  We  do  not  get 
such  things  done  by  requiring  them  but  by  allowing  them. 
A  door  painted  by  a  boy  as  punishment  will  doubtless  need 


26  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

repainting  in  a  very  short  time.  It  is  his  interest  even  more 
than  his  painting  that  the  wall  needs.  Just  how  mueh  or 
what  kinds  of  improvements  can  thus  be  made  will  vary 
mainly  with  the  teacher's  ingenuity  and  ability.  With  the 
right  guidance,  the  children  can  do  or  materially  aid  in 
almost  any  sort  of  cleaning  or  repair  work.  At  least,  they 
can  give  or  help  collect  the  money  to  pay  a  mechanic  to  do 
the  work  under  their  observation. 

Advantages.  The  advantages  of  this  policy  of  keeping 
the  building  in  good  condition  are  obvious  :  It  saves  money 
in  the  repairs  and  improvements  made.  It  saves  much 
more  by  reducing  the  occasions  for  having  them  made.  It 
insures  the  buildings  being  kept  in  better  shape.  It  affords 
the  most  practicable  instruction  possible  in  the  essential 
manual  and  domestic  arts.  It  inculcates  a  higher  standard 
of  keeping  things  in  repair,  that  should  be  reflected  through- 
out the  community  in  the  course  of  time.  It  develops  a 
school  spirit  and  pride  that  will  extend  most  advantageously 
to  other  tasks  and  conduct.  Finally,  it  is  the  very  acme  of 
basic  training  in  civic  righteousness. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Compare  some  of  the  newest  with  some  of  the  oldest  school 
buildings  of  similar  size  within  your  knowledge.  W^hat  changes  are 
for  greater  educational  utility  ?  Which  merely  indicate  changes  in 
architectural  style  ? 

2.  Write  a  detailed  criticism  of  one  or  more  actual  schoolrooms. 
Which  defects  are  practically  serious.'  Which  arc  only  theoreti- 
cally so  ? 

3.  Criticize  one  or  more  school  buildings  on  the  basis  of  the 
topics  in  this  chapter.  Which  defects  can  be  practically  remedied  ? 
How  ?    Would  such  changes  justify  the  cost  ? 

4.  Study  the  plans  of  a  number  of  buildings  as  given  in  the 
readings  selected  below.    Select  one  you  regard  as  best  for  a  school 


BUILDINGS  27 

the  size  of  yours.  Write  a  summar)'  of  its  advantages  over  the  one 
you  have.  What  modifications  of  the  plan  would  be  desirable  to 
adapt  it  to  the  site  you  have  ? 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  repairs  and  small  improvements  needed  in 
an  actual  building  that  you  are  studying.  '1  o  what  extent  could  the 
children  be  used  in  making  these .'  Make  an  estimate  of  the  cost 
with  the  aid  of  the  children  and  without  it. 

READINGS 

Briggs.    Modern  American  School  Buildings. 

Dresslak.    School  Hygiene. 

DUTTOX  and  S.MiODEN.    Administration  of    Public  Education  in  the 

United  States,  chaps,  xi,  xii. 
Shaw.    School  Hygiene. 
Wheelwright.   School  Architecture. 

American  School  Board Jouf/ial.  (A  monthly  journal  of  much  practical 
value  in  problems  of  construction,  equipment,  and  administration.) 
Cyclopedia  of  Education  (edited  by  Paul  Monroe).^ 
Proceedings  National  Education  Association? 
Bulletins,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  * 

Bulletin  No.  ^,  1910,  "American  Schoolhouses  "  (Uresslar). 

Bulletin  No.  4S,  191 3,  "  School  Hygiene"  (Ryan). 

Bulletin  No.  ^2,  191 3,  "  Sanitary  Schoolhouses.   Legal  Requirements 
in  Indiana  and  Ohio." 

1  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education  (5  vols.,  The  Macmillan  Company) 
is  the  most  comprehensive  reference  work  on  all  educational  questions.  It 
is  new,  well  organized  and  illustrated,  and  accurate.  Its  various  articles 
might  be  given  as  references  in  every  chapter,  but  to  avoid  mere  repetition 
it  will  not  again  be  cited. 

2  The  annual  volumes  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education 
Association  contain  an  extensive  array  of  addresses  delivered  at  the  gen- 
eral and  departmental  meetings  of  that  association.  They  are  well  indexed 
and,  if  accessible,  should  be  consulted  freely  on  any  topic  in  which  the 
student  seeks  a  broad  view  of  current  opinions. 

*  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  publishes  a  very 
valuable  series  of  bulletins  on  a  wide  range  of  practical  educational  prob- 
lems. These  may  be  secured  free  or  at  a  nominal  cost  by  addressing  the 
Bureau.  The  annual  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  contain  the 
only  complete  statistical  data  of  .American  education  and  the  most  compre- 
hensive review  of  educational  progress  in  this  country  and  throughout  the 
world.   These  publications  are  reliable  and  should  be  freely  used. 


CHAPTER  IV 

LIGH'ILXG 

Eyestrain.  Nature  has  not  yet  evolved  an  organ  fully 
adapted  for  the  tremendous  strain  we  put  upon  the  eyes  of  . 
school  children.  The  fact  that  over  twenty-five  per  cent  of 
all  pupils  have  seriously  defective  vision  and  that  this  pro- 
portion regularly  increases  during  the  period  of  school  life 
indicates  how  we  are  overtaxing  their  eyes.  Like  other 
organs,  the  eye  tends  to  improve  with  right  usage  but  is 
easily  and  permanently  injured  by  overstrain.  The  perma- 
nent loss  of  visual  efficiency  —  a  cruel  handicap  to  inflict 
upon  one  at  the  beginning  of  life  —  is  not  the  only  pen- 
alty for  overtaxing  the  eyes.  Unless  relieved  by  the  use  of 
glasses,  chronic  headaches  and  nervous  affections  are  very 
likely  to  follow,  making  mental  concentration  impossible 
and  resulting  in  retardation,  discouragement,  and  early 
elimination    from    school. 

Its  causes.  Clear  vision  requires  a  focus  of  the  light  rays 
upon  the  retina  at  the  point  of  its  greatest  seeing  power, 
the  fovea  centralis.  This  necessitates  (i)  an  exactly  correct 
accommodation  or  change  in  convexity  of  the  lens  varying 
with  the  distance  of  the  (object ;  (2)  a  suitable  movement  of 
each  eye  to  bring  its  fovea  and  pupil  in  line  with  the  object ; 
(3)  a  convergence  of  the  two  eyes  so  that  both  will  have 
the  correct  alinement  at  the  same  time -this  degree  of 
convergence  varies  as  the  distance  of  the  object ;  (4)  a  cir- 
cular contraction  or  expansion  of  the  iris  to  control  the 
amount  of  light  entering  the  eyeball  —  this  varies  with  each 
change    in    brightness.     Each    line   of   print   read    involves 

28 


LIGHTING  29 

three  to  five  jumps  forward  and  one  all  the  way  back,  and 
at  each  jump  there  must  be  a  new  alinement  and  distance 
adjustment  of  each  eye  and  of  the  two  in  relation  to  each 
other.  All  these  adjustments,  to  say  nothing  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  lids  and  glands  not  directly  involved  in  vision, 
are  accomplished  by  means  of  marvelously  accurate  stimula- 
tion and  response  of  various  sets  of  minute  muscles.  Be- 
sides this  there  is  an  accompanying  strain  from  constant 
tensions  and  movements  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and 
back  necessary  to  bring  the  head  into  a  favorable  position 
for  seeing,  or  of  the  arms  to  hold  the  book.  With  it  all, 
the  instant  discrimination  of  the  numberless  slight  variations 
of  minute  characters  which  constitute  a  page  of  reading  matter 
is  itself  a  marvel  of  delicate  adjustment  to  light  stimulation. 
When  all  this  is  considered  we  begin  to  appreciate  something 
of  the  enormous  demands  we  are  making  on  the  sensory- 
motor  visual  mechanism  in  the  course  of  a  day  at  school. 
Aggravations.  Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  pos- 
sible a  curriculum  consisting  mainly  of  reading  and  writing 
and  other  fine  visual  adjustments  makes  extremely  heavy 
demands  upon  the  seeing  mechanism.  It  is  easy  to  see 
how  the  strain  is  enormously  aggravated  (i)  by  a  lack  of 
sufficient  illumination  to  enable  the  words  to  stand  out  dis- 
tinctly from  their  background  ;  (2)  by  light  so  placed  that 
shadows  of  the  hand  continuously  play  over  the  page  on 
which  one  is  writing;  (3)  bv  cross-lights  which  radiate 
streaks  of  varying  light  and  shade  ;  (4)  by  work  placed  too 
near  the  eye  and  thus  requiring  a  constant  muscular  strain 
of  convergence  and  accommodation  ;  (5)  by  work  placed  too 
far  and  thus  reducing  the  visual  size  and  clearness ;  (6)  by 
work  placed  at  a  wrong  angle  to  the  line  of  vision  and  thus 
producing  a  foreshortening  of  the  letters  and  contortion  of 
their  shape  as  actually  seen  ;  (7)  bv  print  too  small  for  easy 
discrimination  ;    (S)    by   highly   calendcrctl    or    shiny   paper 


30  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

which  reflects  the  Hght  in  varying  streaks  of  intensity ; 
(9)  by  any  bright  area  of  light  entering  the  eye  from  the 
background  or  anywhere  in  the  field  of  vision  and  thus 
stimulating  a  contraction  of  the  iris  when  clear  vision  of 
the  work  demands  its  expansion.  Further  aggravation  is 
produced  by  any  disturbance  in  the  poise  of  the  nervous 
system  due  to  fatigue,  irritation,  lack  of  general  vigor, 
strain  of  the  neck  muscles  in  adjusting  the  head  to  a  good 
seeing  position,  physical  discomforts  from  improper  seating 
or  the  rival  stimulation  of  other  sense  organs  clamoring  for 
the  center  of  attention.  The  situation  is  further  compli- 
cated by  the  particularly  bad  lighting  conditions  under  which 
most  children  study  at  night,  by  the  intimate  sympathy 
between  the  visual  organization  and  the  general  nervous  and 
bodily  tone,  and  by  the  fact  that  a  considerable  proportion  of 
children  begin  school  with  eyes  quite  imperfect. 

Its  effects.  The  defects  most  common  are  those  due  to 
the  shape  of  the  eyeball  or  lens.  They  are  (i)  myopia,  or 
nearsightedness,  which  is  the  result  of  an  eyeball  so  long 
or  lens  so  convex  that  the  light  rays  come  to  a  focus  before 
they  reach  the  retina ;  {2)  hypermetropia,  or  farsightedness, 
due  to  an  eyeball  so  short  or  lens  so  flat  that  the  rays  reach 
the  retina  before  they  focus  ;  and  (3)  astigmatism,  due  to 
any  irregularity  in  the  curvature  of  the  cornea  causing  a  dis- 
torted image  to  be  thrown  upon  the  retina.  Very  few  eyes 
are  so  perfect  that  careful  tests  do  not  disclose  some  degree 
of  astigmatism.  All  these  defects  are  often  congenital,  but 
they  are  easily  increased  by  eyestrain,  especially  in  early 
life.  They  are  all  due  to  lack  of  proper  muscular  control 
or  balance  and  in  extreme  forms  produce  squint  or  cross- 
eyes.  The  strain  necessary  to  secure  a  clear  visual  image 
with  these  defective  organs  produces  headache  and  nerv- 
ous disorder.  This  in  turn  results  in  preventing  mental 
concentration  and  scholastic  progress. 


LIGHTING  31 

The  pity  of  it.  Children  so  afflicted  are  often  regarded 
as  merely  stupid,  lazy,  or  stubborn.  The  world  to  them  is 
a  series  of  hazy  and  indefinite  color  impressions  with  little 
distinctness  of  outline.  The  printed  page  is  a  confusion  of 
marks  that  fade  and  flow  and  dance  about  as  they  look  at 
and  attempt  to  distinguish  them.  The  most  pathetic  aspect  is 
that  the  afflicted  ones  have  no  way  of  knowing  that  they  see 
differently  from  other  people.  They  have  no  other  stand- 
ards of  clearness  with  which  to  compare  their  own.  A 
typical  case  is  that  of  a  manly  fellow,  from  a  family  where 
standards  of  honor  and  intellectual  attainment  were  high, 
who  brought  shame  to  his  parents  and  was  considered  a 
disgrace  to  his  family  because  he  persistently  claimed  to 
feel  bad  or  to  have  headaches  at  schooltime  and  study  hour 
but  promptly  forgot  them  at  other  times.  Although  strong 
physically  and  apparently  bright  mentally,  his  infallible  dis- 
like of  school  and  study  resulted  in  his  being  badly  retarded. 
He  hated  school  and  everything  associated  with  learning  and 
made  every  excuse  to  avoid  them.  Not  until  he  was  nearly 
grown  and  the  hope  of  an  education  was  past  was  it  discov- 
ered that  a  defect  of  vision  had  made  it  impossible  for  him 
to  read  without  painful  nciTous  strain.  A  pair  of  glasses 
was  all  that  he  had  needed  to  make  him  an  interested  and 
successful  student. 

In  addition  to  these  defects,  children  are  subject  to  many 
sorts  of  inflammation  of  the  eyes  which  are  germ  diseases, 
mostly  highly  contagious,  and  which  should  be  segregated 
and  treated  as  other  forms  of  infection.  These  will  be 
discussed  later. 

Principles  of  lighting.  It  is  bad  enough  that  the  modern 
school  demands  five  or  six  hours  of  reading  and  writing 
each  day  of  young  children  —  not  to  mention  the  home 
study  under  conditions  we  know  not  how  bad.  It  is  bar- 
barous that  we   should  deny  them  in  school  that  which   is 


32  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

so  essential  to  them  and  withal  so  abundant  and  cheap,  — 
daylight.  The  last  word  as  to  ideal  lighting  has  not  been 
said,  but  the  principles  thus  far  accepted  should  be  familiar 
to  every  teacher. 

1.  There  must  be  no  light  shining  into  the  faces  of  the 
children  or  brightly  illuminated  walls  in  front  of  them.  Any 
light  within  the  field  of  vision  stronger  than  that  reflected 
from  the  book  itself  decreases  the  relative  illumination  of 
the  book,  lessens  the  power  of  the  eye  to  read  it,  and 
causes  continuous  strain  of  adjustment. 

2.  Light  should  not  come  from  the  right  or  from  behind 
in  such  manner  as  to  throw  shadows  from  the  hand,  head, 
or  shoulders  upon  the  work. 

3.  Light  should  not  enter  through  distinctly  separated 
openings,  causing  cross-lights  and  areas  of  decidedly  differ- 
ent degrees  of  illumination. 

4.  Light  should  be  received  through  the  upper  rather 
than  the  lower  portion  of  the  windows.  This  better  illu- 
minates the  side  of  the  room  opposite  the  windows;  it  enables 
the  light  to  be  reflected  down  from  the  ceiling  rather  than 
up  from  the  floor;  it  admits  direct  light  from  the  sky  instead 
of  that  reflected  from  surrounding  buildings  and  other  ob- 
structions. A  foot  at  the  top  of  a  window  ordinarily  has 
practical  lighting  efficiency  equal  to  three  feet  at  the  bottom, 
especially  on  the  lower  floors. 

5.  The  light-admitting  area  of  the  windows  should  be 
not  less  than  one  fifth  the  area  of  the  floor  space.  One 
fourth  the  floor  area  should  be  allowed  in  gloomy  climates, 
smoky  locations,  and  in  places  where  the  light  is  much 
obstructed  by  surrounding  objects. 

Window  requirements.  1"hesc  conditions  are  all  met  by 
having  the  windows  on  one  side  only,  — the  left ;  by  having 
them  extend  from  about  thirty  or  forty  inches  above  the  floor 
to  as  near  the  ceiling  as  the  structure  of  the  building  will 


LIGHTING  33 

permit ;  by  having  them  begin  some  four  or  six  feet  from  the 
front  end  and  extend  clear  to  the  rear  end  of  the  room ;  and 
by  having  the  divisions  between  them  made  to  obstruct  as  httle 
light  as  possible,  preferably  steel  mullions  beveled  inwardly. 

Wall  coloring.  The  ceilings  down  to  the  picture  mold 
should  be  white  or  cream,  to  reflect  the  high  light  evenly 
down  upon  the  desks.  From  the  mold  to  the  blackboard 
should  be  some  soft  green  (jr  tan.  The  floor,  baseboard,  and 
wall  to  the  blackboard  should  be  dull-finished  and  dark-toned. 
The  desk  tcjps  likewise  should  be  finished  dull  and  dark. 

Window  shades.  In  any  room  the  lighting  area  which  is 
necessary  on  a  dark  day  is  altogether  too  much  on  a  bright 
day.  E.xcessive  light  is  as  harmful  as  too  little.  Lighting 
efficiency  is  therefore  largely  a  matter  of  shades  and  their 
management.  A  shade  which  cuts  off  the  top  light  only  is 
poor  for  either  lighting  or  ventilating  purposes.  Those  which 
roll  from  the  bottom  only  are  inconvenient  and  readily  get 
out  of  order.  Two  shades  rolling  from  the  middle  in  both 
directions  break  up  the  mass  of  light  into  two  separated 
blocks.  Inside  shutters  and  Venetian  blinds  are  generally 
regarded  as  sources  of  unlimited  trouble,  though  thev  have 
certain  advantages.  Outside  blinds  control  the  light  onlv  by 
cutting  it  off  altogether  or  by  cutting  it  up  into  a  series  of 
alternate  bars  of  light  -jud  darkness.  The\-  are  decidedly 
undesirable.  The  best  solution  seems  to  be  the  adjustable 
shade  which  is  raised  or  lowered  bodilv  as  easily  as  it  is 
rolled  up  or  unrolled.  There  are  several  satisfactory  forms 
of  adjustable  shade  fixtures  on  the  market,  and  the  cost  is 
very  slight.  Their  value  depends  on  the  way  they  are  used. 
They  do  not  adjust  themselves  automatically  to  the  constantly 
changing  light. 

Which  direction?  North  light  is  best,  because  it  is  more 
even  and  it  requires  but  little  or  no  shading  ;  but  it  requires 
larger  window  space  to  provide  against  dark  da\s,  and  the 


34  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

large  north  exposure  makes  heating  more  diilicult.  South 
hght  is  hardest  to  control  on  bright  days ;  hence  south  rooms 
should  be  used,  when  practicable,  for  kindergartens,  labora- 
tories, etc.,  where  the  sunshine  is  desirable  but  less  book 
study  is  required.  West  rooms  are  best  for  primary  grades 
which  are  dismissed  about  noon,  and  east  rooms  for  those 
grades  which  are  held  to  their  desks  later  in  the  day. 

Remedying  defective  lighting.  A  room  with  windows 
badly  arrrangcd  can  sometimes  be  improved  with  a  little  in- 
genuity. A  typical  frame  country  school  with  two  widely 
separated  windows  on  each  side  was  quickly  and  attractively 
converted  into  a  well-lighted  room  by  simply  moving  the  two 
windows  from  the  right  side  and  placing  them  between  the 
two  on  the  left.  New  windows  may  often  be  inserted  be- 
tween old  ones  with  little  expense,  and  those  on  the  wrong 
side  can  be  permanently  sealed  or  closed  witii  perfectly 
opaque  blinds.  Any  that  may  be  in  the  front  of  the  room 
must  be  shuttered  so  that  not  a  chink  of  liglit  gets  through. 
Rear  windows  may  well  be  retained  for  additional  light  on 
dark  days.  Often  a  glass  door  may  be  substituted  for  a 
solid  one  at  little  cost  and  much  benefit.  Prism  glass  placed 
in  the  upper  sash  will  help  to  distribute  the  light.  The  ribs 
or  prisms  run  vertically  tend  to  throw  the  light  to  the  dark 
ends  of  the  room  and  run  horizontally  throw  it  up  against 
the  ceiling  or  across  the  room. 

Lighting  limitations.  If  satisfactoiy  light  cannot  be  got 
to  the  children,  by  all  means  get  the  children  to  the  light. 
Almost  any  light  may  be  fairly  good  if  movable  seats  are 
provided  so  that  the  children  may  adjust  their  work  to  the 
place  and  position  in  which  it  is  best  illuminated.  The 
most  perfect  window-lighting  arrangement  cannot  correctly 
illuminate  all  the  desks  all  the  time  if  they  are  stationary. 
The  most  informal  moving  of  chairs  and  benches  to  get  the 
children  near  the  w'indows  is  better  than  strained  eyes. 


LIGHTING  35 

Books.  Books  which  arc  printed  on  paper  with  a  very 
high  gloss  or  in  which  the  print  used  is  too  fine  should 
not  be  used  for  continuous  study.  Eighteen-point  (great 
primer)  type  should  be  used  for  the  primary  books  and 
nothing  smaller  than  eleven-point  (small  pica)  or  ten-point 
(long  primer)   for  any  books  that  children  are  to  read. 

The  teacher's  opportunity.  The  earnest  teacher  will  not 
be  blind  to  his  ^  duty  and  opportunity  in  the  matter  of  his 
pupils'  eyes.  He  will  spare  no  effort  or  influence  within 
his  power  to  secure  the  correct  construction  of  the  building 
or  any  alteration  necessary  to  good  lighting.  He  will  see  that 
the  shades  are  so  manipulated  and  the  children  so  seated  as 
to  secure  the  best  light  conditions  for  all.  The  constant 
movement  of  sun  and  clouds  makes  this  a  continuous  re- 
sponsibility. The  architect  can  only  make  good  lighting 
possible.  He  cannot  secure  it  day  by  day.  Bright  sunlight 
must  never  shine  into  a  pupil's  eyes  nor  across  his  desk. 
Much  use  of  the  eyes  should  never  be  required  where  the 
light  is  either  glaring  or  insufficient.  Defective  eyes  should 
be  detected  by  use  of  the  Snellen  cards,  which  may  be  had 
from  almost  any  state  health  or  educational  department.  Par- 
ents should  be  urged  to  consult  a  reliable  oculist  and  secure 
the  necessary  treatment  or  glasses  to  relieve  any  defects 
which  may  be  discovered.  These  afflicted  pupils  should  have 
special  consideration,  being  placed  where  the  lighting  is  best 
(not  necessarily  strongest),  and  should  be  relieved  somewhat 
from  the  tasks  most  trying  to  the  eyes  and  be  permitted  fre- 
quently to  rest  them  completely.    Pupils'  headaches  or  a  dull 

1  The  lack  of  a  pronoun  of  common  gender,  singular  number,  is  always 
awkward  in  discussions  of  teachers  and  pupils.  The  current  tendency  to 
use  the  feminine  in  referring  to  the  teacher  while  retaining  the  masculine 
in  referring  to  the  pupil  seems  to  be  justified  on  arithmt-dcal  grounds  only. 
Surely  no  other  apology  for  the  use  of  the  masculine  pronoun  than  the 
granuiidtiial  rule  is  necessary  in  a  work  of  this  sort  in  which  principals  and 
superintendents  are  referred  to  as  well  as  elementary  teachers. 


36  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

feeling  abt)ut  the  c\'cs  should  have  careful  consideration. 
Particularly  in  poorly  lighted  rooms,  schedules  of  work 
should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  permit  alternation  of  work 
which  requires  much  use  of  the  eyes  and  that  which  does 
not.  All  children  should  be  encouraged  to  rest  their  eyes 
occasionally  by  closing  them  or  looking  at  distant  objects. 
They  should  be  taught  the  hygiene  and  care  of  the  eyes 
and  warned  against  reading  at  home  in  a  lying  or  other  bad 
posture,  in  the  dusk  of  the  evening,  or  by  any  dim  or  un- 
steady light.  They  should  be  particularly  warned  against  read- 
ing with  the  light  in  front,  a  practice  which  is  very  common 
and  \-ery  harmful. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Procure  a  Snellen  test  card  and  make  a  careful  test  and 
record  of  the  visual  acuity  of  several  persons. 

2.  Criticize  the  lighting  of  several  rooms,  good  and  bad,  indi- 
cating all  defects  and  possible  remedies. 

3.  Where  could  prism  glass  or  ground  glass  be  used  to  advan- 
tage ?    What  effects  would  be  secured .'' 

4.  Where  would  you  seat  a  nearsighted  pupil  ?    Why  ? 

5.  Would  there  be  any  advantage  to  a  farsiglued  pupil  to  be 
placed  as  far  as  possible  from  the  blackboard  .'  What  consideration 
should  be  given  this  pupil  ? 

6.  Prepare  a  scheme  of  colors  for  ceiling,  walls,  woodwork,  and 
furniture  of  selected  classrooms.  What  difference  would  you  make 
between  the  coloring  of  a  north  and  a  south  room.' 

READINGS 

Allex.    Civics  and  Heakh,  chap.  vii. 

BuRGERSTEix.    School  Hygiene,  chap.  ii. 

Dkesslar.    School  Hygiene,  chap.  xv. 

O'SiiKA.    Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  chap.  xvii. 

Rowe.    Lighting  of  Schoolrooms. 

.Smaw.    School  Hygiene,  chap.  ix. 

Terman.    Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  chap.  xiv. 


CHAPTER  V 
HEAT  AND  VENTILATION 

Master-teachers  and  fresh  air.  Socrates  taught  in  the 
streets,  Plato  in  a  grove  ;  Aristotle's  school  was  called  the 
Peripatetic,  because  he  taught  walking  about  among  the  trees; 
the  Stoics  were  named  for  the  stoa,  or  porches,  where  their 
classes  were  conducted  ;  the  Epicureans  met  in  the  gardens 
of  Epicurus,  and  the  Prince  of  Teachers  taught  by  the  sea- 
side and  wayside.  The  world's  greatest  teachers  have  ever 
loved  the  freedom  and  the  inspiration  of  the  open. 

Outdoor  classes.  School  excursions  and  open-air  schools 
are  among  the  most  effective  of  our  present-day  teaching 
agencies.  The  best  device  for  supplying  fresh  air  to  chil- 
dren is  just  to  take  them  out  into  it.  Why  fear  irregularity 
or  informality .''  It  is  the  regularity  and  formality  of  our 
school  settings  that  are  deadening  to  inspiration.  It  is  our 
shut-in  habits  that  arc  abnormal  and  depressing. 

Any  pleasant  neighboring  spot,  somewhat  shielded  from 
distractions  and  interruptions,  shaded  from  the  too  bright 
sunshine  or  sheltered  from  the  too  cold  winds,  should  be  a 
frequent  place  of  resort  for  the  classes  of  any  school.  A 
convenient  band-stand,  summcrhouse,  or  group  of  seats  in 
a  city  ]jark,  a  waterside  pavilion,  or  a  quiet  wharf,  is  worth 
more  than  much  expensive  equipment  in  getting  a  fine 
school  spirit  and  large  educative  results.  At  one  charming 
school  a  simple  platform  with  roof  supported  on  rustic  posts 
of  cedar,  half  hidden  in  the  tall  shrubbery  and  shady  trees 
of  the  school  grounds,  constitutes  a  most  useful  and  inex- 
pensive part  of  the  fciuipment.    Such  an  o]X'n-air  schoolroom 

37 


38  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

could  be  built  by  the  larger  boys  at  any  school.  The 
plainest  school-made  tables  and  benches  and  a  strip  or  two 
of  movable  blackboard  to  hang  against  the  posts  when 
needed  are  sufficient  equipment.  Such  an  outdoor  room  is 
not  devoted  to  one  grade  or  to  a  class  of  invalids.  It  is 
used  by  any  grade  when  monotony,  fatigue,  or  irritability 
lower  the  standard  of  w^ork  and  prevent  mental  concentra- 
tion in  the  class.  The  class  may  remain  but  a  few  minutes 
for  a  drill  lesson,  or  it  may  be  for  a  study-period,  or,  with 
"  furniture  "  pushed  aside,  they  may  engage  in  calisthenics, 
games,  or  dancing. 

Open-air  rooms.  Open-air  rooms  for  the  continuous  use 
of  tubercular  and  anemic  children  are  now  regarded  as 
essential  in  the  construction  of  large  modern  schools.  The 
uniformly  gratifying  results  in  the  way  of  physical  and 
mental  gains  on  the  part  of  all  the  afflicted  children  so  pro- 
vided for  have  not  only  made  the  policy  a  permanent  one 
throughout  the  civilized  world  but  have  raised  a  serious 
discussion  of  the  question  of  similar  provision  for  normal 
children. 

Window  ventilation.  Next  best  to  getting  the  children 
out  to  the  air  is  getting  the  air  in  to  the  children.  It  is  too 
commonly  supposed  that  because  there  are  openings  where 
the  air  might  come  into  the  room  the  air  is  struggling  to 
get  in.  Having  openings  is  one  thing ;  getting  the  air 
through  them  is  another.  When  the  rooms  are  not  heated 
or  artificially  ventilated,  exhaled  air  is  warmer  than  the 
fresh  and  will  therefore  tend  to  rise.  Openings  at  the  top 
of  the  room  for  its  egress  are,  then,  as  important  as  those 
lower  down  for  the  ingress  of  fresh  air.  Ideal  windows 
would  be  flush  with  the  ceiling  and  open  their  whole 
length,  offering  not  the  slightest  resistance  to  the  flushing 
out  of  all  air.  Even  openings  at  different  levels  give  little 
assurance  of  sufficient  circulation   to   meet  the   needs  of  a 


(  H'l-  N-WIN  III  iW    ROOMS 

Al'ovi-,    midwinter    in    an    (ipcnw  in.lwu-    loom,    Craliam    School,   t'liicago. 

V'cUnv,  a  classroom    converted    into   an    open-window   room  by  mcans^of 

draft  screens,  Moscley  School,  Chicago 


HEAT  AND  VENTILATION  39 

room  full  of  children  if  no  fan  or  breeze  is  driving.  Open- 
ings on  opposite  sides  of  the  room  are  more  effective,  espe- 
cially doors  opening  upon  corridors  through  which  the  air 
sweeps  freely. 

Window  boards.  Window  boards  are  a  very  simple  and 
effective  device  for  permitting  free  circulation  through  the 
windows  and  yet  preventing  cold  drafts  from  striking  directly 
upon  the  children.  A  board,  six  to  ten  inches  wide,  is 
placed  at  the  bottom  just  inside  the  inner  stop.  The  win- 
dow may  then  be  raised  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  board : 
the  current  entering  the  room  will  be  deflected  upward  by 
the  board  and  also  between  the  upper  and  lower  sashes.  A 
flower  box  in  the  window  ser\^es  a  similar  function  besides 
its  other  values.  Glass  window  boards  have  the  advantage 
of  cutting  off  no  light.  In  the  open-window  room  of  the 
Moseley  School,  Chicago,  draft  screens  resembling  inverted 
awnings  of  durable  white  goods  are  used  in  place  of  win- 
dow boards.  These  are  made  to  be  removed  or  raised  and 
lowered  easily  and  are  used  with  windows  wide  open. 
y  Flushing  and  drafts.  Whatever  the  system  of  ventilation 
or  of  heating  and  whatever  the  weather,  occasionally  during 
the  school  day  and  always  when  the  room  is  being  cleaned, 
the  windows,  especially  at  the  top,  and  the  doors  should  be 
thrown  wide  open  and  the  room  freel)-  and  thoroughly 
flushed  out.  Colds  are  not  contracted  from  winds.  A 
continuous  draft  on  a  small  portion  of  the  person  may  dis- 
turb the  heat-regulating  mechanism  of  the  body  and  pro- 
duce local  congestion  with  serious  results.  The  remedy  is 
not  to  lessen  the  air  movement  about  the  person  but  to 
increase  it.  As  Terman  forcibly  puts  the  case  :  "  Instead 
of  fleeing  from  drafts  we  should  seek  them.  As  long  as 
we  are  healthy,  it  is  only  the  little  draft,  which  cools  but  a 
small  part  of  the  body,  that  is  injurious.  The  remedy  for 
draft,    therefore,    is    more    draft,    coupled    with    the   healthy 


40  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

circulation  that  comes  from  sufficient  exercise  "  ('"  Hygiene 
of  the  School  Child,"  p.   16 1). 

Fresh  air.  Motionless,  moistureless,  lifeless  indoor  air 
rests  like  a  curse  on  the  average  school.  We  attain  it  at 
enormous  costs  for  air-tight  buildings  and  elaborate  thermo- 
static systems  of  suppressing  vitality. 

Fresh jair  is  the  best-known  preventive  of  anaemia,  colds, 
tuberculosis,  and  other  ills  and  contagions  that  school 
children  are  prone  to  contract. 

FrcsJi  air  is  the  most  effective  preventive  of  disorder, 
irritability,   and  friction  in  the   management  of  a  school. 

Fresh  air  dissipates  fatigue,  inattention,  and  nervousness. 

Fresh  air  is  a  large  factor  in  cheerfulness,  enthusiasm, 
good   spirits,   and  school  pride. 

Fresh  air  is  indispensable  to  efficient  and  sustained 
mental  activity. 

Fresh  air  is  the  cheapest,  most  abundant,  most  accessible, 
and  most  delightful  commodity  with  which  school  authorities 
are  concerned  —  and  the  most  carefully  excluded. 

What  is  fresh  air?  l^y  fresh  mr-we  mean  that  which  is 
as  nearly  as  possible  like  that  outdoors  on  a  fine,  bracing, 
invigorating  day.  It  is  this  for  which  the  human  machine 
has  become  adapted  in  the  course  of  its  evolution  and  in 
which  it  functions  to  best  advantage.  Devisers  of  school- 
ventilating  systems  have  been  assuming  that  essentials  of 
good  air  are  a  high  and  uniform  temperature  and  freedom 
from  all  appreciable  currents,  together  with  a  low  percent- 
age of  carbon  dioxide  and  impurities.  Recent  investigations 
have  shown,  on  the  contrary,  that  schoolroom  conditions 
cannot  produce  sufficient  carbon  dioxide  or  other  substances 
to  be  dangerous  or  to  interfere  materially  with  working  effi- 
ciency, that  high  and  uniform  temperatures  are  undesirable, 
and  that  considerable  motion  in  the  atmosphere  is  particu- 
larly  necessary.     The    ventilation    problem    is    not    one    of 


I  .  M  ,    .  'i     .,»  iiwwl,    .■,  I  ,k,N   >  M    l.>l  HI.  1  >1    >tH(  lOl.  WALLS 

A  school-directed  home  garden  (see  p.  315)  and  a  simply  constructed  out- 
door classroom  (see  p.  37) 


IIKAT  AND  VENTILATI()x\  41 

simply  getting  certain  chemical  or  organic  substances  out 
of  the  air,  although  some  of  these  in  undue  quantities  may 
be  deleterious,  but  is  primarily  one  of  getting  physical  con- 
ditions of  the  atmosphere  adapted  to  the  best  functioning 
of  the  human  organism. 

It  might  well  be  a  school-management  proverb  that  "  the 
lack  of  fresh  air  is  the  root  of  all  evil."  For  the  want  of  fresh 
air  countless  children  are  suffering  all  manner  of  temporar)^ 
and  permanent  ills  and  otherwise  good  teachers  are  being 
recorded  as  failures.  Out  of  doors,  in  Nature's  laboratory, 
where  the  green  things  are  growing,  an  endless  supply  is 
being  constantly  purified,  humidified,  and  put  into  proper- 
circulation.  It  surrounds  and  bombards  the  schools.  It  is 
only  necessary  not  to  shut  it  out. 

Oxygen  and  energy.  The  power  by  which  all  study  must 
be  accomplished  is  child  energy.  Oxygen  only  can  convert 
nutriment  into  energy.  Vigorous  brain  action  is  dependent 
on  an  abundant  supply  of  food  and  its  ready  oxidation.  But 
this  oxidatif)n  requires  something  quite  different  from  mere 
inhalation  and  exhalation  of  air.  It  is  equally  necessary  that 
the  digestive  processes  make  the  nutritive  materials  ready 
for  oxidation,  that  the  circulatory  system  transport  the 
munitions  to  every  portion  of  the  body,  that  the  excretory 
agencies  actively  remove  toxic  and  deleterious  substances, 
that  the  neural  and  muscular  cells  which  are  to  be  ener- 
gized shall  be  vigorously  functioning  and,  specifically,  that 
the  vasomotor  and  coordinated  reflexes  which  automatically 
control  the  thermic  states  of  the  body  shall  have  the  sort 
of  stimulation  which  is  favorable  for  mental  work. 

All  this  is  necessary  to  convert  oxygen  into  thought 
activity.  To  secure  the  combination,  we  need  something 
more  than  mere  "pure"  air.  There  mu.st  be  air  in  motion 
over  the  body  and  more  vigorously  through  the  lungs  than 
is  possible  to  one  sitting  stooped  over  a  book.    There  must 


42  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

be  frequent  energetic  and  varied  activity  of  the  voluntary 
muscles.  There  must  be  vigorous  functioning  of  the  vital 
processes.  There  must  be  more  or  less  stimulation  of  the 
complex  temperature  adjustments  of  the  body  by  changes 
of  surface  temperature. 

Before  we  go  into  a  discussion  of  the  methods  of  ventila- 
tion, it  will  be  well  to  get  before  us  the  requisites  in  the 
related  problems  of  schoolroom  heat  and  humidity. 

The  real  temperature  problem.  Uniformity  of  body  tem- 
perature is  undoubtedly  a  prime  essential  to  health.  The 
clinical  thermometer  is  the  physician's  first  test  for  abnormal 
conditions,  and  a  slight  variation  from  the  normal  is  occa- 
sion for  anxiety.  But  the  thermometer  under  the  tongue 
registers  nearly  the  same  for  a  healthy  person  whether  one 
has  been  playing  ball  in  July  or  riding  through  a  snowstorm 
in  January.  The  temperature  that  counts  for  physical  wel- 
fare is  regulated  inside  the  body  and  is  equally  independent 
of  weather  variations  and  steam-heating  plants.  The  heating 
problem,  therefore,  is  not  one  of  keeping  the  room  at  a  con- 
stant temperature  but  of  keeping  tlie  body's  automatic  ther- 
mic adjustments  functioning.  This  is  accomplished  chiefly 
by  the  vasomotor  reactions  which  direct  the  blood  flow  to 
the  surface  when  the  inner  combustion  is  too  great  or  sur- 
face radiation  too  slow,  or  which  send  the  blood  inward  when 
heat  production  runs  low  or  radiation  high.  The  perfect 
functioning  of  these  adjustments  and  the  atmospheric  en- 
vironment of  a  bracing  day  are  the  temperature  conditions 
most  favorable  to  profitable  brain  activity. 

The  best  school  temperature  for  health  and  convenience 
is  from  6^^^  to  68°  Fahrenheit.  The  stcMy  of  the  open-air 
schools,  however,  in  which  the  frailest  anaMnic  and  tubercular 
children  have  grown  well  and  strong  under  the  rigors  of 
northern  winters  without  any  artificial  heat,  has  proved  be- 
yond question  that  if  suitable  clothing  and  nourishment  are 


HEAT  AM)  VKXriLATION  43 

provided,  the  matter  of  heat  is  of  small  consequence.  A 
freezing  temperature  is  entirely  favorable  to  school  work  if 
adequate  wraps  are  provided. 

Humidity.  At  a  temperature  of  68°  air  requires  sixdm^s 
as  much  moisture  as  it  does  at  20°  to  maintain  the  same 
humidity.  Thus  when  the  cold  air  of  outdoors  is  heated  on 
entering  the  schoolroom  it  becomes  relatively  very  dry.  The 
atmosphere  of  Sahara  is  not  nearly  as  dry  as  any  air  that  has 
been  heated  thirty  degrees  without  being  moistened.  We 
place  wet  garments  by  a  sto\'e  to  dr\'  just  because  the  heated 
air  is  so  extremely  active  in  reestablishing  its  humidity.  In 
a  schoolroom  where  humidifying  has  not  been  provided  for, 
the  only  accessible  moist  surfaces  at  which  the  recently  dried 
air  can  saturate  its  thirst  are  the  mucous  membranes  of  the 
pupils'  air  passages,  their  eyes  and  delicate  skins.  Depriv- 
ing these  tissues  of  their  normal  dampness  not  only  causes 
much  d[scojTifort  but  interferes  with  their  functioning  and 
renders  them  subject  to  serious  disorders. 

Wliile  dr)'  air  is  most  t(3  be  guarded  against,  a  high 
humidity  with  a  high  temperature  prevents  sweat  evapora- 
tion, increases  the  temperature  and  circulation  at  the  surface 
of  the  body,  and  thus  ijiterrupts  the  ^culation  of  blood  in 
the  brain  and  vital  organs,  making  the  atmosphere  feel  op- 
pressive and  rendering  mental  work  difficult.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  high  humidity  with  a  low  temperature  produces  a 
"^clammy"  atmosjihere  with  its  discomforts  and  dangers.  It 
is  important  therefore  that  both  high  and  low  extremes  of 
humidity  be  avoided. 

What  is  the  ventilation  problem  ?  With  these  facts  be- 
fore us  it  is  obvious  that  we  must  revise  many  popular  ideas 
of  artificial  heating  and  ventilation.  Under  the  sedentary 
conditions  of  school  work,  as  ordinarily  organized,  less  than 
one  seventh  of  the  air  of  the  lungs  is  changed  at  anv  breath. 
Bad  posture  probably  reduces  even  this  very  materially.    The 


44  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

still,  confined  atmosphere  of  a  classroom  permits  a  jacket  of 
inert  air  to  cling  like  a  cloak  about  the  person,  thus  depriv- 
ing the  skin  of  that  atmospheric  stimulation  of  the  vaso- 
motor adjustments  referred  to  above.  The  same  conditions 
which  thus  reduce  the  supply  of  air  accessible  to  the  lungs 
likewise  reduce  the  action  of  the  vital  organs  and  muscular 
system  by  which  the  oxygen  becomes  available  for  nourish- 
ment and  energy.  No  mere  mechanical  system  can  produce 
conditions  as  favorable  to  health  and  vigor  as  simply  keep- 
ing in  close  touch  with  the  outdoors.  But  if  a  reasonable 
humidity  is  maintained,  overheating  avoided,  physical  exer- 
cise frequent  and  varied,  posture  good,  deep  breathing  habit- 
ual, and  the  room  frequently  flushed  out  with  fresh  air  from 
outdoors,  almost  any  system  that  keeps  the  air  moving  and 
affords  a  temperature  convenient  for  school  work  will  be 
satisfactory.  We  may  give  attention  here  to  a  few  of  the 
simplest  effective  plans  of  heating  and  ventilation. 
^  Direct  radiation.  Direct  radiation  from  a  stove  or  open 
fire  is  healthful  but  very  extravagant,  because  an  astonish- 
ingly small  percentage  of  the  actual  heat  generated  radiates 
into  the  room  and  that  little  is  unevenly  distributed. 

Gravity  systems  and  the  jacketed  stove.  The  simplest 
and  most  economical  plan  of  school  heating  and  ventilation 
is  the  "gravity  system."  This  name  is  applied  to  any 
arrangement  which  secures  circulation  by  utilizing  the  dif- 
ference in  weight  between  cold  and  warm  air  to  move  the 
currents  and  which  supplies  heat  by  warming  the  air  as  it 
enters.  The  jacketed  stove  is  the  most  effective  and  eco- 
nomical gravity  system  for  a  smgle  room.  This  consists  of 
an  ordinary  heater,  preferably  of  the  tall,  round  type,  inclosed 
in  a  cylindrical  sheet-metal  jacket  about  five  feet  high.  The 
ja'ket  stands  off  about  two  inches  from  the  stove  and  is  fas- 
tened tight  to  the  floor.  It  is  placed  on  a  zinc  mat  or  stove 
board,  to  facilitate  cleaning  and  to  protect  the  floor  from 


\i 


HEAT  AND  VENTILATION  45 

falling  coals.  It  is  entirely  open  at  the  top  and  has  a  hinged 
door  through  which  the  stove  is  managed.  Under  the  floor 
is  a  fresh-air  duct  leading  from  one  side  of  the  building  and 
opening  under  the  stove.  It  may  be  built  of  metal  or  boards 
but  should  have  a  smooth  interior,  offering  no  obstruction 
to  the  free  flow  of  air  or  harbor  for  dirt  or  insects,  and  it 
should  be  screened  to  exclude  birds,  trash,  etc.  It  should 
be  placed  so  as  to  receive  the  air  at  some  point  free  from 
dust  or  odors  and  if  placed  on  the  south  side  of  the  build- 
ing, the  air  will  enter  several  degrees  warmer  in  severe 
weather  and  thus  effect  a  very  important  saving  of  fuel. 

As  soon  as  the  stove  is  heated  the  fresh  air  is  warmed, 
rushes  upward  through  the  jacket,  and  rises  to  the  top  of 
the  room.  Here  it  spreads  itself  out  and  presses  downward 
the  air  already  in  the  room.  Since  only  a  certain  amount  of 
air  can  get  into  the  room  at  a  time,  it  is  necessary  to  draw 
out  the  old  in  order  that  the  new  may  come  in.  The  forced 
exit  of  the  impure  air  is  accomplished  by  using  the  other- 
wise wasted  heat  which  goes  up  the  chimney.  The  stove- 
pipe enters  the  flue  seven  to  ten  feet  from  the  floor  and 
extends  at  least  two  or  three  feet  up  through  it.  The  hot 
pipe  and  smoke  create  a  draft  up  thnnigh  the  flue,  while 
an  opening  at  the  floor  permits  the  air  to  enter  from  the 
room.  Experiment  has  shown  that  the  best  circulation  is 
attained  In'  ha\ing  this  opening  for  the  foul  air  outlet  at 
the  level  of  the  floor  and  near  the  stove,  which  happens 
to  be  the  most  convenient  place  possible  for  it.  As  soon 
as  the  fire  is  lighted  it  begins  automatically  to  force  one 
current  of  air  up  through  the  jacket  to  the  ceiling  and 
draw  another  out  through  the  flue  from  the  floor,  thus 
making  a  complete  circulation. 

The  stove  should  by  all  means  be  a  large  one.  The  net 
opening  for  either  inlet  or  outlet  should  be  not  loss  than 
two  square  feet.    The  inside  diameter  of  the  flue  should  be 


46  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

at  least  three  inches  greater  than  that  of  the  stovepipe 
which  extends  into  it.  On  cold  mornings  it  is  well  to  cut 
off  the  fresh-air  supply  under  the  stove  and  open  the  jacket 
door  for  a  half  hour  or  more,  while  the  air  already  in  the 
room  is  being  thoroughly  warmed  and  the  children  are 
dr)dng  and  warming  their  feet  at  the  stove.  Supplementary 
doors  are  sometimes  provided  in  the  jacket  for  additional 
foot-drying  accommodations.  Various  adaptations  make  the 
plan  available  for  any  room  or  any  flue.  The  jacket,  duct, 
and  flue  may  be  made  by  local  mechanics  at  the  cost  of  a 
few  dollars,  or  a  complete  outfit  ready  to  install  may  be 
purchased  from  supply  houses. 

Hot-air  furnace.  For  two  rooms  or  more,  the  same 
heating  and  ventilating  effects  as  from  the  jacketed  stove 
are  attained  with  great  saving  of  the  space,  fuel,  dirt,  and 
confusion  incident  to  separate  stoves  by  means  of  a  fur- 
nace placed  in  the  basement.  In  principle  the  furnace  is 
merely  a  large  stove  with  jacket  closed  at  the  top  and 
forcing  the  fresh,  warmed  air  through  large  ducts  to  the 
classrooms.  The  intake  in  the  room  should  be  six  to 
eight  feet  from  the  floor  on  the  side  opposite  the  win- 
dows, or  next  the  flues,  and  the  foul-air  outlet  should  be 
near  the  floor  on  the  same  side.  The  latter  naturally  opens 
into  the  stack  through  which  the  smoke  pipe  from  the 
furnace  passes. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  put  on  having  the  fur- 
nace sufficiently  large.  Skimping  here  is  very  common  and 
is  the  worst  extravagance.  A  small  furnace  requires  fre- 
quent feeding,  necessitating  almost  constant  janitor  service 
and  producing  rapid  fluctuations  of  temperature,  with  far 
greater  consumption  of  fuel,  destruction  of  the  furnace,  and 
danger  to  the  children  from  coal  gas,  which  will  soon  leak 
into  the  air  supply  under  such  management.  Furthermore, 
small   ducts   or  gratings   largely   filled   up   with    scrollwork 


HEAT  AND  VENTILATION  47 

make  necessary  an  impossibly  rapid  current  through  the 
passages  in  order  to  secure  any  considerable  movement  in 
\    rvthe  classroom. 

Ventilation  standards.  Expert  authorities  and  state  laws 
usually  place  the  minimum  of  fresh  air  which  should  be 
supplied  for  each  child  which  a  schoolroom  is  to  accommo- 
date at  thirty  cubic  feet  per  minute.  This  means  seventy- 
two  thousand  cubic  feet  per  hour  for  an  average  classroom. 
If  the  net  opening  in  the  fresh-air  passage  is  but  a  square 
foot,  a  gale  of  nearly  fourteen  miles  per  hour  must  pass  this 
point  to  secure  the  necessary  circulation.  Treble  the  opening 
and  the  same  result  is  secured  with  a  moderate  current. 

Precautions.  Any  gravity  system  needs  careful  oversight 
to  guard  against  interruption  by  winds  and  weather.  The 
fresh-air  intake,  like  a  chimney,  may  have  to  be  shielded  at 
times  to  prevent  strong  winds  checking  or  even  reversing 
the  flow  of  the  current.  When  a  cold  wind  is  blowing  on 
the  windows  of  the  rooms  on  the  north  side  and  the  sun 
shining  brightly  on  the  sheltered  windows  of  the  south 
side,  both  temperature  and  circulation  are  much  higher  in 
the  south  rooms.  It  is  often  necessary  almost  or  quite  to 
cut  off  the  current  to  the  south  rooms  in  order  to  get  any 
warm  air  from  the  furnace  to  enter  the  colder  side  of  the 
house.  Sometimes  this  is  neglected,  and  the  oversupply  of 
warm  air  in  the  south  room  tempts  the  teacher  to  open  the 
windows,  whereupon  the  suction  of  the  southbound  winds 
draws  a  gale  from  the  furnace  directly  out  the  windows  and 
the  north  rooms  are  left  to  freeze.  It  is  usually  necessary 
that  the  warm-air  supply  be  cut  off  from  a  room  when  the 
windows  are  opened. 

Forced  circulation.  To  obxiate  the  uncertainties  of  grav- 
ity currents,  fans  are  installed  in  most  buildings  of  more 
than  four  rooms.  A  large  fan  is  usually  placed  in  the 
basement  and  drives  the  fresh  air  over  the  furnace  (plenum 


48  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

fan)  or  it  may  be  placed  in  the  foul-air  exit  near  the  roof 
(exhaust  fan).  In  large  buildings  both  may  be  used  but, 
of  the  two,  the  plenum  is  the  more  effective.  The  arrange- 
ment of  fresh-air  and  foul-air  ducts  is  not  different  from 
that  for  the  gravity  circulation.  A  liberal  supply  of  electric 
fans  in  the  rooms,  to  keep  the  air  agitated,  would  un- 
doubtedly greatly  increase  the  \'alue  of  any  ventilating 
system. 

Larger  systems.  In  very  large  buildings  and  where 
weather  conditions  are  especially  severe,  it  is  necessary  to 
supplement  any  warm-air  plan  of  heating  by  means  of  some 
steam  or  hot-water  radiation  system.  These,  of  course,  do 
not  ventilate.  The  choice  as  well  as  the  installation  of  any 
such  system  on  a  large  scale  is  a  matter  for  experts.  All 
heating  systems  are  more  or  less  variable  and  complex. 
Untold  annoyance  and  unlimited  waste  in  fuel  and  in  the 
equipment  itself  are  common  through  lack  of  intelligent 
management.  Here  we  can  only  insist  that  unless  a  thor- 
oughly expert  janitor  is  employed  the  principal  should  make 
a  careful  study  of  the  most  economical  and  efficient  opera- 
tion of  the  plant  and  give  it  sufficient  personal  supervision 
to  see  that  satisfactory  results  are  attained.  Inexjjcrt  jani- 
tors need  supervision  and  training  as  truly  as  inexpert 
teachers  and  the  children  themselves.  Time  consumed  in 
mastering  the  idiosyncrasies  of  a  heating  plant  to  which  one 
is  held  in  servitude  is  time  wisely  invested. 

Foot-drying.  In  any  school-heating  system  there  should 
be  proN'ision  for  warming  and  drying  the  feet  of  the  chil- 
dren, preferably  by  special  registers  placed  in  the  floor  of 
the  corridor.  l'u]?ils  should  not  be  restricted  in  the  free 
use  of  these.  Warm  feet  are  necessary  to  good  circula- 
tion and  are  far  more  effective  than  high  tcm])eratures 
in  the  schoolroom  for  getting  the  children  warm  and  for 
avoiding  colds. 


HEAT  AND  VENTILATION  49 

Humidifying.  To  restore  humidity,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  introduce  sufficient  moisture  into  the  warm-air  supply 
duct,  so  that  the  air  will  take  up  all  that  its  increased  heat 
demands.  This  is  ordinarily  provided  for  by  an  open  vessel 
of  water  on  the  top  of  the  jacketed  stove  or  a  flat  pan  pro- 
vided in  practically  all  furnaces,  over  which  the  current  of  hot 
air  passes.  If  this  is  insufficient,  and  it  will  be  if  the  furnace 
is  too  small  and  the  currents  are  forced  through  it  rapidly,  it 
is  easily  supplemented  by  thick  clcjths  hanging  over  wire  sup- 
ports placed  above  the  pan.  The  cloths  act  like  wicks,  draw- 
ing up  the  water  as  used  and  affording  a  larger  evaporating 
surface.  Neglect  is  the  worst  foe  to  humidifying  arrangements. 
Water  pans  are  often  allowed  to  remain  dry  and  even  to  rust 
out  without  replacement.  Attention  to  them  is  a  duty  of 
the  janitor  which  the  principal,  having  in  mind  the  dangers 
of  dried-out  air,  should  be  untiring"  in  following  up. 

Testing  the  air.  "The  sling  psychrometer,  recommended 
and  fully  described  by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau,^ 
may  be  used  to  determine  the  humidity  with  accuracy.  It  is 
cheap  and  its  use  constitutes  an  admirable  scientific  exercise. 
But  for  practical  purposes  during  school  hours  the  best 
method  of  making  sure  of  adequate  humidity  is  to  look  after 
the  water  pan  and  to  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  well- 
humidified  air  out  of  doors. 

Several  methods  have  been  devised  for  testing  the  im- 
purity of  the  air  in  a  room.  The  Fitz,  the  Wolpert,  and  the 
Cohen  and  Appleyard  tests  measure  the  impurity  of  the  air 
in  terms  of  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  which  it  contains. 
The  koniscope  and  the  sugar  tests  determine  the  impurity 
by  the  amount  of  dust  and  the  number  of  bacteria  in  a 
given  volume  of  the  atmosphere.- 

^  Ihillt'tin  Xo.  2ji;,  DcpaitniciU  of  Agriculture. 

*  See  Dresslar,  School  Hygiene,  p.  170,  and  A'alioual  FJiication 
Association  Pivcecditt^^s,   191 1,   p-  977- 


50  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

These  tests  have  their  value  for  research  and  scientific 
experiment.  For  practical  use  in  the  busy  classroom,  nature's 
tests,  the  sense  of  smell  and  the  feel  of  closeness,  are  far 
more  effective,  (^wing  to  the  readiness  with  which  these 
senses  arc  fatigued  or  become  "adapted"  one  does  not 
readily  detect  the  gradual  changes  of  the  atmosphere  in 
which  he  is  confined.  Principals,  supervisors,  janitors,  and 
particularly  the  pupils  themselves  sliould  cultivate  a  sensi- 
tivity to  unwholesome  conditions,  and  as  they  pass  in  and 
out  of  the  rooms  serve  as  official  indicators  of  the  need  of 
ventilation.  It  would  raise  any  community's  standard  of 
health  and  refinement  if  all  children  were  made  "  fresh- 
air  cranks."  We  very  readily  become  habituated  to  either 
fresh-air  or  foul-air  conditions. 

In  concluding  this  rather  long  chapter  we  may  sum- 
marize some  of  the  more  practical  points  for  the  guidance 
of  teachers. 
^  Summary  of  practical  rules,  i.  Study  carefully  the  heat- 
ing and  ventilating  system  you  have  in  order  to  secure  what- 
ever efficiency  it  is  capable  of  affording. 

2.  Unremitting  vigilance  in  the  management  of  the 
furnace,  stoves,  and  flues  is  necessary  to  satisfactory  results. 

3.  Instead  of  giving  thought  to  tests  for  dangerous 
atmospheric  conditions,  keep  so  far  on  the  safe  side  tl^at 
problems  as  to  the  purity  of  the  air  will  never  arise.  Air 
and  water  are  cheap. 

4.  Air  will  humidify  itself  if  abundant  water  is  supplied 
as  it  is  heated.    Outdoor  air  is  always  safe  and  accessible. 

5.  Occasionally  throw  open  doors  and  windows  and  flush 
out  the  room  while  children  are  in  motion  or  out  at  i^lay. 

6.  Always  have  the  room  flushed  out  during  and  after 
sweeping  or  dusting. 

7.  Low  temperatures  with  sufficient  wraps  are  safer  than 
high  temperatures. 


HEAT  AND  VENTILATION  51 

8.  Do  not  let  children  sit  with  damp  or  cold  feet  or 
where  a  current  of  air  strikes  upon  a  portion  of  the  body. 
These  practices  are  dangerous. 

9.  Posture,  breathing,  and  exercise  have  incomparably 
more  to  do  with  ventilating  values  for  the  child  than  all 
the  windows  or  ventilating  systems  ;  therefore  : 

(a)  Train  the  children  to  sit  erect  and  afford  them  every 
aid  and  opportunity  to  do  so  easily  and  comfortably. 

(/;)  Have  frequent  breathing  exercises  and  cultivate  habits 
of  deep  breathing  among  the  children. 

(c)  Have  frequent  periods  of  active  physical  exercise,  such 
as  manual  work,  calisthenics,  singing,  marching,  games,  or 
outdoor  play. 

10.  Whenever  the  class  (or  teacher)  becomes  dull,  de- 
pressed, or  irritable,  it  is  likely  that  fresh  air  and  vigorous 
movement  are  needed.  Open  the  windows,  exercise,  or  get 
outdoors  if  practicable. 

1 1 .  Arrange  to  take  the  class  out  into  the  open  for  work 
as  much  as  possible.  Get  them  accustomed  to  it,  so  that  the 
excitement  of  the  occasion  will  not  consume  their  attention, 

12.  So  long  as  the  air  and  the  children  are  freely  and 
abundantly  in  motion  and  outdoor  air  has  free  access  to 
the  children  there  need  be  no  occasion  for  anxiety  as  to 
ventilation. 

13.  Constant  instruction  and  daily  training  should  be 
directed  as  forcibly  as  possible  toward  establishing  those 
habits  of  ventilation  and  exercise  whicii  make  for  a  vigorous 
and  energetic  race. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Make  an  abstract  of  your  state  laws  or  official  regulations 
with  respect  to  the  problems  of  this  chapter. 

2.  Write  a  criticism  of  vour  school  buikling  as  to  its  heating: 
and  ventilation  system. 


52  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

3.  Determine  the  net  area  of  opening,  at  its  smallest  point,  of 
the  fresh-air  duct  leading  to  the  furnace  (or  stove).  At  what  rate 
must  the  current  of  air  pass  this  point  to  supply  thirty  cubic  feet 
per  minute  for  each  child  in  school  ? 

4.  Make  a  similar  test  of  the  fresh-air  duct  leading  to  your 
classroom. 

5.  If  an  anemometer  is  available,  measure  the  actual  rate  of 
these  currents. 

6.  Work  out  a  diagram  showing  the  actual  course  of  the  cur- 
rents of  air  in  your  schoolroom  on  a  cold  day  with  the  ventilating 
system  in  use.  (Smoking  blotting  paper  or  punk  will  indicate 
the  movements  of  the  air.) 

READINGS 

AvKES.    Open  Air  Schools. 

BuRGERSTEix.    School  Hygiene,  chap.  iii. 

BuRRAGE  and  Bailey.    School  Sanitation  and  Decoration,  chap.  iii. 

Dresslar.    "  American  Schoolhouses."'  Bulletin  No.  j,  United  States 

Bureau  of  Education.  1910. 
Dresslar.    School  Hygiene,  chaps,  x-xiv. 
KiNGSLEV.    Open-Air  Crusaders. 
Shaw.    School  Hygiene,  chap.  iv. 
Tekman.  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  chap.  x. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SEATS   AND   DESKS 

Seats  of  the  past.  In  classic  times  the  youth  had  only 
his  knees  on  which  to  rest  his  scroll  or  waxen  tablets.  For  a 
seat  he  may  have  had  a  plain  bench,  but  more  commonly  he 
had  the  floor,  pavement,  or  grass.  However,  the  lack  was 
not  serious,  for  reading  and  writing  played  a  small  part  in  his 
education.  In  medieval  days  the  monasteries  v^ere  equipped 
with  benches  capable  of  more  or  less  physical  torture,  but 
those  who  sought  physical  development  and  believed  in  bodily 
vigor  spurned  literary  studies  altogether.  Medieval  writing 
desks  were,  of  course,  of  no  standard  shape  or  style,,  but  for 
those  who  wrote  much  they  were  usually  pulpit-like  affairs 
with  tops  sloping  from  thirty  to  forty-five  degrees  and  com- 
monly made  for  writing  while  standing.  In  pioneer  American 
days  the  split  log,  with  pegs  driven  into  auger  holes  for  legs, 
was  not  an  uncommon  type  of  bench,  while  a  slab  supported 
against  tiic  wall  of  the  room  served  for  a  desk.  This  was 
succeeded  by  the  clumsy  and  comfortless  homemade  board 
desk  of  various  designs.  As  commerce  entered  the  field  of 
school-desk  making,  the  ideal  has  seemed  to  be  rigidity. 
Much  has  been  done  in  working  out  a  strong  and  attractive 
steel  construction  with  a  high  finish  and  tasteful  lines.  As 
wood  gave  way  before  cast  iron,  so  the  latter  is  surrendering 
the  field  to  steel  or  semi-steel. 

"The  bugbear  of  school  hygiene."  The  making  of  desks 
of  sanitary,  durable,  and  attractive  construction  has  kept 
pace  with  other  school  progress.  But  in  the  matter  of 
meeting  the  hygienic  needs  of  the  pupil  who  is  occupying 

53 


A 


54  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

the    scat,    recent    authorities    have   expressed    the    general 
sentiment  thus: 

The  bugbear  of  school  hygiene  for  a  long  time  has  been  the 
school  desk.  —  Burgcrstein,  "  School  Hygiene  "' 

On  the  hygienic  requirements  of  school  desks  .  .  .  fundamental 
requirements  have  scarcely  been  touched.  It  seems  an  indisputable 
fact  that  the  most  serious  defect  of  the  average  school-desk  is  that 
it  subjects  the  pupil  to  a  posture  that  fosters  spinal  curvature, 
cramped  chest  and  defective  vision.  .  .  .  Unless  desk  tops  are  set 
at  proper  angle,  children  will  not  and  cannot  sit  erect  to  do  their 
work.  They  will  bend  over  their  work  day  after  day  unless  we 
devise  a  practicable  desk  top  that  will  necessitate  erect  normal 
posture  for  all  their  work.  —  1  )resslar,  "  School  Hygiene  " 

School  desks  as  at  present  made  are  undoubtedly  demanding 
abnormal  positions  and  making  them  habitual.  —  Cyclopedia  of 
Education 

Essentials  of  a  good  desk.  The  features  to  be  sought  in 
an  ideal  desk  include  the  following : 

CoHstr?ictio?i  should  be  strong,  durable,  and  free  from 
corners  or  irregularities  which  will  catch  dust.  As  already 
indicated,  admirable  progress  has  been  made  in  these  resjiects. 

Finish  should  be  sanitary,  hygienic,  and  in  good  taste. 
The  best  desks  of  to-day  ha\'e  a  fine  dead-black  enamel 
finish  on  the  metal  and  a  dull,  soft-toned  finish  on  the  wood. 
The  use  of  light-colored  woods  finished  in  bright  tones  and 
glossy  surface  is  not  in  good  taste  or  in  harmony  with  the 
studious  purposes  of  the  schoolroom  unless  perhaps  in  ])ri- 
mary  grades.  Such  finish  reflects  the  light  in  a  manner 
trying  to  the  eyes  and  lessens  the  efficient  illumination  of  a 
book  resting  upon  it. 

Desks  should  be  single  a)id  separate.  Double  desks  are 
now  tolerated  only  in  cheaply  equipped  schools.  The  desk 
which  is  attached  to  the  seat  in  front  is  hardly  less  objec- 
tionable than  that  intended  for  two  ciiildren.     In  each  case 


SEATS  AND  DESKS  55 

many  annoyances  arise,  concentration  is  interfered  with,  and 
there  are  obvious  sanitary  disadvantages. 

The  scat  should  be  narrower  than  the  desk.  This  makes 
for  better  posture  and  allows  more  room  for  the  child  to  rise 
and  for  exercises  without  unnecessarily  wide  aisles.  Seats 
should  be  of  the  chair  or  saddle  type.  The  pronounced 
double  curve  with  a  ridge  near  the  front  produces  pressure 
on  the  nerves  and  blood  vessels  just  above  the  knee  or  else 
tends  to  slide  the  buttocks  forward,  and  often  does  both.  It 
also  twists  the  spine  severely  if  the  child  is  seated  sidewise 
for  writing,  thus  tending  to  develop  spinal  curvature. 

Backs  should  be  adjustable  as  to  height  and  as  to  slant. 
They  should  not  be  as  high  as  the  shoulder  blades  nor 
touch  the  hips.  They  should  support  only  the  small  of  the 
back.  They  should  be  practically  solid,  with  no  uneven  ridges 
or  separate  slats  pressing  upon  the  back.  They  should  have 
a  vertically  convex  curve  with  possibly  a  slight  horizontal 
concavity.  A  slight  resilience  to  the  back  will  afford  great 
relief  to  tired  pupils  and  conserve  for  school  work  much 
energy  ordinarily  expended  in  resisting  spinal  jars.  The 
common  type  of  back  is  rigid,  curves  away  from  the  small 
of  the  back,  supports  the  shoulder  blades,  and  cooperates 
with  the  seat  in  pushing  the  hips  forward. 

TJic  desk  top  should  be  adjustable  for  different  kinds  of 
work.  For  modeling  and  most  sorts  of  handwork  a  per- 
fectly level  top  is  desirable.  For  writing  there  may  well  be 
a  slant  of  less  than  ten  degrees  and  a  "  minus  distance,"  or 
projection  over  the  seat,  of  about  two  inches.  For  reading, 
the  book  should  be  some  six  inches  higher  than  the  writing 
level  and  slightly  forward  of  the  edge  of  the  scat,  and  the 
desk  top  should  have  a  slant  of  about  forty-five  degrees. 
The  size  and  shape  of  the  child,  the  size  of  the  book  and 
the  print,  the  condition  of  the  eyes,  and  the  light  condi- 
tions make  the  ideal  position  somewhat  variable.    Numerous 


56  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

designs  for  adjustable  desk  tops  have  appeared  in  this  country 
and  Europe  during  the  last  half  century.  I'^ew  of  them  have 
been  able  to  hold  a  place  on  the  market.  IMost  of  them 
were  too  complicated  and  cumbrous  to  be  practicable.  All 
have  failed  chiefly  in  that  they  did  not  support  the  book  in 
the  position  where  it  should  be  for  reading.  Merely  to  tilt 
the  top  accomplishes  little  or  nothing.  It  must  be  tilted, 
thrust  forward,  and  raised  and  should  hold  the  book  in 
place.  To  be  practicable,  all  this  must  be  done  in  a  single, 
easy,  and  silent  movement,  the  parts  being  so  constructed 
that  they  will  not  readily  break,  wear  out,  or  get  out  of  order. 

TJie  book  box  should  be  dust-proof  and  might  well  be  thief- 
proof.  The  ordinary  bookshelf  under  the  desk  top  is  in  the 
way  of  the  knees,  cannot  be  readily  seen  or  kept  in  order, 
is  inconvenient  and  insanitary,  and  encourages  interference 
by  other  pupils  with  the  owner's  possessions.  The  hinged 
top  has  some  advantages,  but  it  cannot  be  opened  without 
moving  everything  from  the  top,  the  lid  may  be  used  as  a 
screen  for  mischief,  and  the  box  is  still  in  the  way  of  the 
knees.  The  book  drawer  under  the  seat,  common  to  movable 
chair-desks,  is  a  great  improvement  in  all  these  respects. 
This  closes  tight  and  may  be  made  to  lock.  When  it  is  open 
it  is  in  full  view  of  the  child  as  he  sits  at  his  desk  and  when 
closed  is  entirely  out  of  the  way.  Whatever  the  style  of  the 
book  box,  an  unending  duty  of  the  teacher  is  to  see  that 
it  is  properly  kept.  Each  book,  tablet,  and  pencil  should 
have  its  place  and  be  kept  only  there  while  habits  of  neat- 
ness are  being  established.  It  is  disgraceful  to  find  books 
destructively  jammed  inside  of  each  other  or  with  a  month's 
accumulation  of  trash  behind  them. 

Inkwells  should  be  nonbreakable,  noncorrosive,  easy  to  fill 
and  to  clean,  and  such  that  they  cannot  get  out  of  order. 
Many  kinds  advertising  these  virtues  are  on  the  market. 
The  better  ones  are  satisfactory  if  they  are  cared  for,  but 


SEATS  AM)  DESKS  57 

none  can  keep  itself  in  order.  Vigilance  and  supervision 
are  the  price  of  satisfaction  here  as  elsewhere.  With  the 
increasing  use  of  fountain  pens  it  is  desirable  that  a  well 
be  used  which  does  not  leave  an  unsightly  hole  in  the  top 
of  the  desk  if  permanently  removed.  Unused  wells  —  ink 
and  otherwise  —  are  ever  causing  trouble. 

Movable  desks  are  now  largely  used  for  primar}^  and 
special  classes.  These  are  movable  chairs  each  having  its 
own  desk-top  or  writing  surface  suspended  by  some  more  or 
less  successful  device.  They  are  gradually  replacing  fixed 
desks  in  many  schools  and  will  doubtless  be  in  general  use 
ultimately  for  all  grades.  The  projecting  tops  tend  to  render 
some  of  them  quite  unstable.  Those  which  fall  over  easily  are 
a  source  of  annoyance  and  even  of  danger  in  case  of  panic. 
The  whole  idea  of  children's  seats  being  screwed  immovably 
to  the  floor  in  rigid  lines  is  repugnant  to  the  modern  spirit 
of  school  study  and  government.  Group  seating  should  be 
possible  to  make  group  teaching  fully  successful.  Movable 
seats  may  be  arranged  in  two  or  more  distinct  groups,  sepa- 
rated as  far  as  desired  ;  they  may  be  massed  in  different 
parts  of  the  room,  gathered  about  the  front  for  demonstra- 
tions, faced  in  different  directions,  arranged  in  a  circle  or 
amphitheatrical  form,  or  pushed  to  the  walls,  leaving  the 
room  free  for  games,  folk-dancing,  and  the  like.  For  pri- 
mary grades  they  are  becoming  almost  indispensable.  They 
make  the  classroom  available  for  community  center  work  of 
various  kinds,  and  by  this  increased  usefulness  of  the  school 
building  will  doubtless  prove  an  actual  economy. 

For  practical  economy,  a  movable  desk  which  may  be 
readily  converted  from  a  good  school  desk  into  an  equally 
good  auditorium  seat  has  decided  advantages.  It  makes  it 
possible  to  convert  any  classroom  into  a  social  gathering 
room  or  a  lecture  room  for  adult  evening  classes.  With 
such   seats  an  auditorium   may  readily  be   used   for   either 


58  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

class  or  gymnasium  purposes,  or  two  classrooms  may  be 
thrown  together  into  a  very  good  auditorium,  since  both  the 
facing  and  the  spacing  of  the  seats  is  easily  changed. 

Height  adjjistviciit  of  both  scat  and  desk  to  the  needs 
of  the  individual  child  is  available  in  many  of  the  better- 
grade  desks  and  is  in  general  demand.  All  seem  to  have 
the  inevitable  objection  that  the  adjustments  will  become 
loose  and  squeaky  in  the  course  of  time  and  that  teachers 
do  neglect  the  adjusting  unless  constantly  supervised.  If 
the  desks  are  readily  movable  from  room  to  room  and  an 
abundant  assortment  of  sizes  is  provided,  very  few  adjust- 
able-height desks,  if  any,  need  be  provided.  Otherwise  at 
least  one  fourth  of  the  desks  in  a  room  should  by  all  means 
be  adjustable  in  order  to  avoid  serious  physical  strain  upon 
the  children  who  do  not  fit  the  desks.  The  height  of  the 
seat,  according  to  Dresslar,  should  ordinarily  be  two  sevenths 
of  the  height  of  the  child ;  the  height  of  the  desk  top 
(front  edge  at  writing  slant)  should  be  three  sevenths,  plus 
an  inch  in  the  upper  grades  or  plus  half  an  inch  in  primary 
grades.  Owing  to  decided  differences  in  the  shape  of  grow- 
ing children,  this  should  undoubtedly  be  corrected  for  each 
child  separately.  A  long-legged  growing  boy  and  a  roly-poly 
girl  are  proportioned  on  quite  different  plans. 

The  hygiene  of  sitting.  A  healthful  sitting  position  de- 
mands that  both  hips  and  shoulders  should  be  pushed  back 
and  the  small  of  the  back  pushed  forward.  This  posture 
expands  the  thoracic  and  abdorqinal  cavities  and  encourages 
the  free  activity  of  all  the  vital  organs.  It  strengthens  the 
back  and  abdominal  muscles.  It  practically  necessitates  deep 
breathing  and  makes  it  a  habit.  No  ventilating  system  can 
possibly  be  as  large  a  factor  in  getting  good  air  into  the  lungs 
of  children  as  a  seat  which  causes  them  to  sit  with  chest 
expanded.  The  system  may  ventilate  the  room,  but  it  is 
the  posture  that  ventilates  the  child.    If  the  seat,  back,  and 


SEATS  AND  DESKS  59 

desk  top  are  adapted  for  it,  this  erect  posture  is  the  most 
comfortable  possible  and  can  be  longer  sustained  without 
fatigue  than  any  other. 

The  common  type  of  seat  and  back  tends  to  push  both 
hips  and  shoulders  forward.  In  fact,  the  structure  of  the 
spine  is  such  that  both  alike  will  go  forward,  compressing 
the  thorax  and  abdomen,  or  both  will  go  backward,  expand- 
ing these  cavities.  Let  the  reader  try  pushing  the  shoulders 
forward  and  the  hips  back,  or  vice  versa.  The  effect  of  the 
usual  desk  is  the  gradual  sliding  down  and  doubling  up  so 
familiar  to  every  teacher  and  pupil.  Not  only  does  this  com- 
press lungs,  heart,  and  digestive  organs,  suppressing  their 
functioning  and  weakening  their  resistance  to  disease,  but 
the  spine,  suspended  from  its  two  ends,  tends  to  sag  into 
a  permanent  curvature,  resulting  in  stooped  shoulders  and 
a  shambling  gait. 

If  one  sits  erect,  with  book  lying  on  the  ordinary  desk 
top,  the  letters  are  too  far  away  for  proper  visual  focus  and 
are  enormously  foreshortened,  with  corresponding  illegi- 
bility and  eyestrain.  If  he  stand  the  book  on  end,  he  must 
use  both  hands  to  hold  it  and  slide  down  in  the  seat  to 
reduce  the  visual  distance  and  the  foreshortening.  If  he 
lean  over  the  desk  to  get  the  right  distance,  there  is  severe 
strain  on  the  back  and  neck  muscles.  In  his  natural  and 
rightful  efforts  to  relieve  this  strain  he  rests  his  head  on  his 
hands,  with  his  eyes  about  eight  inches  from  the  book,  neces- 
sitating a  severe  strain  of  convergence,  shading  his  book 
with  his  arms,  cramping  the  vital  organs,  bending  spine,  and 
relaxing  the  supporting  muscles.  The  most  perfect  lighting 
is  wasted  when  the  book  is  not  held  in  proper  relation  to  the 
eye  and  to  the  light.  The  correct  position  of  the  book  places 
it  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  vision,  with  the  light  shining 
squarely  upon  the  page,  and  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  (vom 
the  eye,  varying  with  the  size  of  j^rint  and  acuity  of  vision. 


6o  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Seating  and  posture  training.  L'nduubtedlv  children  need 
training  in  good  posture  irrespective  of  the  shape  or  adjust- 
ment of  the  seats,  but  even  incessant  nagging  by  the  teacher 
for  one  position  is  ineffective  training  as  against  the  nag- 
ging of  tired  nature  for  any  position  but  that  one.  Where 
hygienic  seats  are  not  provided,  it  is  even  more  imperative 
that  frequent  change  of  work  and  position  be  provided  in  the 
schedule  and  b)-  the  teacher's  methods.  The  old-fashioned 
recitation  benches  at  the  front  of  the  room,  however  uncom- 
fortable in  themselves,  may  afford  considerable  relief  through 
mere  change  of  position.  Nervous  and  irritable  children 
suffer  serious  injury  from  misfit  and  uncomfortable  seats. 
Spinal  curvature,  anaemic  conditions,  weak  eyes,  and  all 
sorts  of  troubles  in  discipline  are  some  of  the  evils  which 
are  aggravated  by  bad  seating.  Cushions,  foot  rests,  or  what- 
ever may  reduce  the  waste  of  energy  in  nature's  protests 
against  uncomfortable  confinement  to  nonadjustable  seats 
should  not  be  denied.  However  faithful  the  teacher's  ad- 
monitions, children  lack  muscular  strength  to  sit  erect  for 
any  considerable  length  of  time.  This  weakness  of  back 
muscles  is  fostered  by  the  usual  method  of  seating  but 
overcome  by  habituation  to  seats  correctly  formed. 

Renovating  defaced  desks.  There  are  still  some  schools 
where  children  have  so  little  interest  in  their  work  and  so 
little  respect  for  public  property,  so  little  realization  that  it 
is  their  own  property,  that  the  marking  and  carving  of 
desk  tops  continue.  In  others  the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions 
of  past  ages  of  pupils  yet  disfigure  tlic  furniture  and  dis- 
courage efforts  to  keep  the  room  apjDearing  well.  By  de- 
voting fifteen  minutes  to  scraping  the  desk  tops  a  most 
admirable  lesson  in  manual  training,  as  well  as  in  thrift 
and  in  property  values,  is  taught,  and  a  material  increase  in 
value  of  school  equipment  is  accomplished.  Each  child  is 
equipped  with  a  piece  or  two  of  broken  window  glass  and 


SEATS  AX  I)  DESKS  6 1 

a  little  sandpaper.  Where  the  cuts  are  very  deep,  the  jani- 
tor or  a  large  boy  with  a  plane  should  supplement  their 
efforts.  A  fresh  coat  of  varnish  stain  applied  on  Friday 
evening  will  be  ready  for  use  by  Monday  morning.  The 
boys  of  one  town  school  more  than  paid  for  a  good 
manual-training  outfit  by  renovating  old  desks  which  the 
school  authorities  were  about  to  throw  away. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Observe  a  roomful  of  children  studying.  What  proportion 
of  them  assume  a  hygienic  posture  at  their  work  and  for  what 
proportion  of  the  day  ? 

2.  Describe  the  positions  the  children  take  in  order  to  relieve 
eyestrain  and  fatigue  of  the  back  muscles. 

3.  On  how  many  of  the  books  is  the  light  falling  square!}-  or  so 
as  to  illuminate  adequately  ? 

4.  What  is  the  usual  angle  between  the  book  and  the  child's 
line  of  vision  ? 

5.  What  proportion  are  sitting  with  the  small  of  the  back  curved 
backward  and  the  internal  organs  compressed  ? 

6.  Ask  the  children  to  take  a  deep  breath  and  note  the  change 
of  posture  necessary  to  do  so. 

7.  Arrange  a  comfortable  seat  with  a  restful  support  for  the 
small  of  the  back.  Then  provide  a  support  for  your  book  in  the 
correct  reading  position,  sixteen  inches  from  the  eye,  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  of  vision  and  with  the  light  shining  squarely 
upon  it.  What  advantages  would  there  be  in  having  children  do 
all  their  reading  in  such  a  position  ? 

READINGS 

Bancroft.    The  Posture  of  School  Children,  chap.  x.\iv. 
BUKOKKSTKI.N.    School  Hygienc,  chap.  iv. 
Dkessi.ar.    School  Hygienc.  chap.  v. 
Term  AN.    Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  p.  8i. 


CHAPTER   VH 

APPARATUS 

Two  ways  of  wasting.  There  is  as  little  economy  in  pay- 
ing teachers  salaries  and  denying  them  the  apparatus  neces- 
sary to  make  their  work  effective  as  there  is  in  employing 
any  other  class  of  workers  and  denying  them  requisite  tools. 
About  sixty  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  schools  is  paid  for 
teachers.  Five  dollars  expended  on  apparatus  for  every  hun- 
dred paid  the  teachers  would  be  invested  at  one  hundred  per 
cent  profit  if  it  increased  teaching  efficiency  only  ten  per 
cent.  The  actual  average  expenditure  for  the  purpose  is 
probably  well  within  one  per  cent  of  the  salaries,  while  it  is 
evident  that  the  use  of  apparatus  often  adds  as  much  as  fifty 
per  cent  to  the  value  of  the  teaching.  A  niggardly  policy  as 
to  equipment  thus  wastes  much  of  the  school  funds. 

But  there  is  another  aspect  to  this  problem  of  waste. 
Much  of  the  apparatus  on  the  market  is  more  profitable  for 
the  dealer  than  for  anyone  else.  Prices  are  often  exorbitant 
and  educative  values  slight.  The  mode  of  purchase  is  too 
often  such  as  to  make  people  suspicious  of  the  wisdom  of 
the  investment.  Shrewd  and  extremely  agreeable  agents  of 
the  supply  houses  have  brought  about  the  purchase  of  vast 
quantities  of  charts  and  other  equipment  cither  totally  worth- 
less or  practically  so  for  the  teachers  and  schools  to  which 
it  was  supplied.  School  boards,  professing  no  technical 
knowledge,  properly  call  upon  the  educators  for  a  statement 
of  their  needs.  The  teachers,  regarding  it  as  a  mark  of  effi- 
ciency to  get  everything  possible  for  their  schools,  have 
occasionally  named  amounts  as  large  as  they  dared  or  listed 

62 


APPARATUS  63 

everything  in  the  supply  company's  catalogue  which  there 
was  a  remote  chance  of  using  or  getting.  Some  things  are 
"  recommended  "  out  of  mere  curiosity  or  a  vague  idea  that 
they  would  be  nice  things  to  have.  Expert  educators,  like 
other  experts,  are  sometimes  tempted  to  give  advice  which 
the  laity  is  in  no  position  to  question  but  which  is  not  based 
on  a  practical  business  consideration  of  the  relation  between 
the  client's  need  and  his  available  means.  Ambitious  teach- 
ers should  remember  that  efficiency  is  attained  by  economy 
of  expenditure  as  truly  as  by  magnitude  of  results.  An 
honest  saving  attitude  should  insure  their  asking  for  only 
the  materials  that  they  will  use  and  their  using  the  materials 
which  they  get.  Teachers  and  officials  should  especially  be 
on  their  guard  against  the  deplorable  tendency  to  regard 
a  "  public  job  "  as  legitimate  opportunity  for  undue  profit. 
Printers,  contractors,  and  dealers,  often  and  without  shame, 
expect  this  form  of  graft  and  resent  watchful  economy  on 
the  part  of  the  buyer  for  the  public.  But  for  the  frequent 
exceptions  it  would  seem  superfluous  to  say  that  common 
honesty  demands  that  a  teacher  intrusted  with  selecting 
equipment  should  use  the  same  watchfulness  and  strictness 
that  he  would  if  he  himself  were  to  foot  the  bill. 

The  useful  and  the  useless.  I^quipment  is  likely  to  be 
more  appreciated  by  the  children  and  more  profitably  used 
by  the  teachers  if  acquired  gradually,  a  few  pieces  at  a  time 
as  needed,  than  if  a  "complete  outfit,"  selected  without 
reference  to  the  particular  class,  is  "  installed  "  all  at  once. 
Simple  equipment  which  will  accomplish  the  purpose  is  far 
more  educative  than  the  more  elaborate.  There  is  an  in- 
creased teaching  value  in  the  fact  that  the  pupil  sees  just 
how  each  part  is  made  and  put  together  and  a  still  greater 
value  if  he  makes  or  assembles  it  himself.  IClaborate  in# 
struments  tend  to  destroy  the  value  of  a  class  demonstration 
by  losing  the  experiment  in  the  instrument.    Instruments  of 


64  SCHOOL  KM  I(I1-:nc:y 

precision  for  quantitative  science  work  ;  globes  and  maps 
whicli  must  l)e  accurate  to  be  useful  ;  charts  or  models  for 
study  in  lieu  of  objects;  art  models  which  must  always  be 
true  art  to  be  valuable  ;  practical  time-saving  contrivances 
entering  onlv  indirectly  into  the  teaching,  such  as  devices  for 
sharpening  pencils,  ruling,  cleaning,  facilitating  the  gathering, 
dissecting,  and  preserving  of  specimens,  —  these  things  it  is 
economy  to  buy  just  so  far  as  they  will  be  used  and  cared  for. 

Charts  for  teaching,  reading,  writing,  or  spelling  are  often 
worthless.  The  same  is  true  of  chart  outlines  of  grammar, 
civics,  arithmetic,  or  any  outlines  which  do  for  the  children 
the  very  organizing  which  it  is  the  highest  function  of  teach- 
ing to  get  the  children  to  do.  Such  charts  encourage  stilted 
and  deductive  teaching  at  just  the  point  where  inductive 
development  and  abundant  freedom  should  prevail.  The  live 
teacher  and  the  blackboard  are  incomparably  better  for  almost 
any  phase  of  teaching  the  fundamentals.  Education  is  accom- 
plished only  by  the  pupil's  thinking,  and  any  apparatus  which 
purports  to  supply  the  thinking  predigested  should  be  re- 
garded as  a  thought  preventive.  Textbooks  may  well  provide 
forms  for  outlines,  and  teachers  can  do  no  better  reviewing 
than  working  up  outlines  into  chart  form  in  class.  A  ready- 
made  organization  and  a  stimulus  to  organization  should  be 
regarded  as  at  opposite  poles  of  teaching  value. 

Pupil-made  apparatus.  A  very  great  deal  of  the  apparatus 
should  be  made  by  the  children  themselves.  It  should  nexer 
be  forgotten  that  making  aj^paratus  or  assembling  it  is  as 
genuinely  educative  as  any  other  task  at  which  a  pupil  is 
likely  to  be  engaged,  and  the  construction  of  it  is  usually 
as  directly  instructive  as  an\'  lecture,  study,  or  experiment 
in  connection  with  which  it  is  used.  Making  the  apparatus 
"is  so  much  more  important  than  having  it  that  a  stock  of 
simple  parts  which  may  readily  be  assembled  in  different 
w'ays  for  different  purposes  is  to  be  preferred  to  an  outfit  of 


AJM'ARATL'S  65 

distinct  and  perfected  pieces  all  ready  for  use.  Lack  of 
time  is  not  a  valid  objection  to  the  preference  for  home- 
made equipment,  since  time  can  be  no  better  spent  than 
in  making  it.  With  a  more  elastic  schedule  and  organi- 
zation, it  is  not  hard  to  find  time  for  many  things  which 
at  first  appear  impossible.  The  brighter  pupils  are  in  need 
of  occupation  for  spare  time  to  keep  them  out  of  mischief. 
Others  simply  cannot  learn  the  abstract  principles  without 
much  of  the  concrete  manual  construction.  If  teachers 
would  but  cease  hurrying  to  "  get  over  the  ground  "  and 
using  themselves  up  in  the  futile  grading-grind  or  in  the 
"preparing  for  experiments"  in  which  pupils  have  no  part 
but  to  "see  the  thing  go  off,"  they  could  plan  to  make  the 
preparing  as  educative  as  the  going  off  and  give  their  pupils 
the  benefit  of  both.  A  wise  teacher,  instead  of  spending 
an  hour  before  the  class  getting  ready  and  an  hour  after- 
ward in  putting  things  away  or  keeping  the  class  waiting 
while  he  performs  the  instructive  preparation  work,  will  so 
adjust  the  classes  that  some  pupil  or  small  group  will  be 
free  to  set  u])  the  apparatus  for  the  class  experiment  and 
another  to  clean  and  put  away  the  parts  afterward.  Well- 
organized  groups  can  do  these  things  quickly  in  the  class 
period,  especially  in  high-school  "laboratory  periods."  The 
difference  between  an  expert  and  a  laborer  is  that  the 
laborer  works  his  hands  and  his  heels  to  save  working  his 
head,  while  the  expert  makes  use  of  his  head  first  and 
most.  Many  teachers  seem  striving  to  bring  their  occupa- 
tion entirely  within  the  class  of  common  labor.  l-Acn  the 
consciences  of  the  conscientious  ones  seem  to  drive  their 
hands  and  perfunctory  brain  processes  rather  than  their 
higher  judgment.  When  tlu'ir  doing  so  robs  the  child  of 
opportunities  for  learning,  these  supposedly  conscientious 
ones  arc  pedagogically  as  great  sinners  as  those  lazy  ones 
who  do  too  little. 


66  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Instruments  of  precision.  Obviously,  the  whole  purpose 
of  any  piece  of  apparatus  is  to  work.  To  the  extent  in  which 
the  teacher's  time  or  labor  or  ready-made  apparatus  is  needed 
to  this  end  these  must  be  provided  or  the  experiment  omitted. 
Telling  what  ought  to  have  hai)pencd  if  it  had  come  out 
right  is  best  done  without  any  apparatus.  Object  lessons  in 
failures  are  worse  than  none  at  all.  l^^xperiments  that  re- 
quire delicate  and  complex  apparatus  arc  not  necessary  or 
pedagogically  wise  in  elementary  courses.  Advanced  courses 
are  a  very  different  matter.  Instruments  of  precision  must 
necessarily  be  precise,  and  delicate  measurements  cannot  be 
made  with  crude  equipment.  But  nature  and  the  ever)'day 
facts  of  industry  and  life  afford  such  a  wealth  of  experiments 
of  the  most  instructive  sort  that  elementary  science  classes 
have  little  need  for  the  sort  of  experiment  that  pupils  cannot 
set  up  or  find  already  set  up  and  practically  operative  in  the 
neighborhood. 

Familiar  contrivances.  Some  of  the  ordinary  commercial 
electric  and  mechanical  contrivances  should  be  made  familiar 
because  of  their  direct  practical  interest  and  importance. 
The  National  Education  Association  has  secured  the  jjublica- 
tion  and  free  distribution  to  members,  by  interested  manu- 
facturing concerns,  of  a  series  of  charts  and  monographs 
showing  the  principles  and  construction  of  the  sewing  ma- 
chine and  certain  familiar  electrical  apparatus.  This  valuable 
and  suggestive  series  indicates  that  many  ordinary  instru- 
ments and  machines,  accessible  almost  anvwhere,  might  be 
so  used.  A  t}']:)ewriter,  electric  fan,  automobile,  the  tele- 
phone, call  bells,  clocks,  spectacles,  microscope,  a  swing,  a 
warehouse  truck,  furnace,  radiator,  refrigerator,  ice-cream 
freezer,  or  any  other  familiar  instrument  or  machine  is  an 
ideal  point  of  beginning  for  lessons  in  physics.  Things 
that  are  in  actual  use  and  demonstrating  their  worth  daily 
have  peculiar  value  as  teaching  apparatus. 


APPARATUS  fij 

Good  tools.  It  is  important  also  that  the  children  be  sup- 
plied with  adequate  tools  for  making  well  and  easily  the 
things  they  are  required  to  make.  A  good  equipment  of 
simple  wood-working  and  metal-working  tools  and  a  supply 
of  stock  materials  can  be  bought  for  the  cost  of  a  ver)- 
few  special  instruments  for  demonstrating  single  principles. 
There  should  be  adequate  equipment  to  demand  of  the  chil- 
dren that  whatever  work  they  do  shall  be  done  neatly  and 
accurately.  Workmanlike  products  should  be  required  as 
far  as  possible,  but  these  are  possible  only  with  good  tools 
well  kept. 

Primary  materials.  For  primary  reading,  phonics,  and 
number  work  the  sight  or  "  flash  "  cards  are  quite  valuable. 
They  are  supplied,  at  little  or  no  cost,  in  connection  with 
some  primers.  But  a  child  by  making  such  a  card  will  re- 
member what  is  on  it  better  than  he  would  by  seeing  it 
many  times  ;  and  the  card  which  a  classmate  made  has  a 
meaning  which  a  bought  one  cannot  have.  Even  first-graders 
can  trace  over  the  teacher's  letters  with  brush  or  crayon,  the 
neatest  cards  being  retained  for  permanent  class  use.  A  set 
of  large  rubber-stamp  types  may  be  used  by  the  children  in 
making  cards  and  charts.  Restless  children  of  older  grades 
are  delighted  with  the  "  bu.sy  work"  of  making  these  cards 
for  the  little  ones.  With  large  sheets  of  wrapping  paper  the 
teacher  and  pupils  may  make  charts,  and  these  homemade 
charts  have  a  vital  significance  that  ready-made  ones  never 
can  have.  Even  if  a  child  has  not  the  actual  training  of 
making  it,  he  feels  that  it  belongs  to  his  class  and  that  it 
is  a  help  in  his  learning. 

Arithmetic  measures.  For  arithmetic  there  should  be  a 
liberal  supply  of  the  standard  weights  and  measures,  and 
these  should  be  made  use  of  for  every  possible  purpose. 
Foot  rules  and  yardsticks  and  meter  sticks,  duly  subdivided, 
should  grow  familiar  through  constant  use  as  pointers  and 


68  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

rulers.  Quart  cups  and  peck  measures  may  well  be  used 
constantly  and  consciously  as  containers  for  every  practicable 
purpose.  There  will  then  be  little  to  teach  reg^arding  them. 
There  may  also  be  cube-root  blocks  where  this  topic  is  taught. 
Beyond  these  little  if  anything  should  be  bought.  All  sorts 
of  counters,  even  to  an  abacus,  may  be  very  j:)rofitably  pre- 
pared by  the  children  themselves.  Geometrical  forms  siiould 
be  constructed  out  of  stiff  paper  as  class  exercises.  The 
materials  for  arithmetic  teaching  are  at  hand  everywhere  in 
the  vcrv  things  to  which  arithmetic  is  intended  to  be  applied. 
Maps.  A  good  set  of  maps,  clear  and  not  too  detailed, 
should  be  provided  in  every  classroom.  During  the  days  or 
weeks  that  a  continent  is  being  studied,  its  map  should  be 
before  the  pupils'  eyes  constantly.  There  should  be  a  simi- 
larly vivid  map  of  the  state,  count}-,  or  town.  T'ew  pieces 
of  equipment  are  more  useful  than  outline  blackboard  maps. 
These  can  be  purchased  on  cloth  blackboard  which  rolls  up 
as  an  ordinary  map.  They  should  be  used  very  extensively 
for  drills  and  reviews  and  in  almost  every  sort  of  geography 
or  history  recitation  with  the  aid  of  colored  crayon  in  the 
hands  of  the  children.  A  globe  of  about  twelve  inches  diam- 
eter and  a  blackboard  globe  should  also  be  accessible.  The 
best  relief  maps  are  so  preposterously  out  of  proportion  and 
out  of  all  semblance  to  the  things  which  they  are  supposed 
to  represent  that  they  are  of  little  use  as  models.  Relief 
maps  may  be  made  by  the  class  with  some  benefit  by  using 
a  mixture  of  salt  and  flour,  provided  their  disproportions 
are  appreciated.  The  sand  table  likewise  can  readily  be 
made  by  the  pupils  but  should  be  used  with  caution.  In 
the  presence  of  natural  phenomena,  that  are  abundant  wher- 
ever water  falls  or  runs,  illustrating  erosion  by  means  of  the 
sand  table  is  a  pitiful  makeshift.  Every  creek,  stream,  gully, 
or  even  a  back  yard  after  a  heavy  rain  is  a  hundred  times 
better  than  the  sand  table. 


APPARATUS  69 

Several  particularly  valuable  series  of  maps,  which  should 
be  freely  used  in  the  schools,  may  be  had  at  a  nominal 
price  from  the  United  States  Government.  These  include 
the  sectional  topographic  maps  furnished  by  the  United 
States  Geologic  Survey,  the  pilot  charts  of  the  Hydrographic 
Office,  the  meteorological  charts  and  the  daily  weather  maps 
of  the  Weather  Bureau  and  the  maps  of  the  Land  Office 
and  Post  Office  departments. 

Stereopticon.  Some  satisfactory  form  of  stereopticon  or 
projectoscopc  should  be  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  every 
school,  if  possible.  With  this  there  should  be  a  constantly 
growing  accumulation  of  the  best  illustrative  slides  and  pic- 
tures attainable  for  the  stud\'  of  geography,  history,  litera- 
ture, art,  science,  and  every  other  subject  which  can  be 
made  to  appeal  through  visual  representation.  The  National 
Geographical  ^Magazine  is  particularly  useful,  A  moving- 
picture  machine  is,  of  course,  desirable,  but  the  expense  of 
getting  the  high-grade  educational  films  is  still  so  great, 
especially  of  getting  them  at  times  when  they  will  correlate 
well  with  the  studies,  that  their  service  must  be  mainly  for 
social-center  uses  supplementary  to  the  courses  of  instruction 
rather  than  an  integral  part  of  them. 

Library.  The  school  library  is  now  so  universally  recog- 
nized as  an  essential  part  of  the  school  as  to  need  no  dis- 
cussion. Provision  should  be  made  not  only  for  bookcases 
or  shelves  in  which  the  books  will  be  well  protected  but  for 
an  adequate  cataloguing  and  charging  system.  One  excel- 
lent measure  of  a  teacher's  efficiency  is  the  extent  to  which 
his  pupils  make  use  of  the  working  part  of  the  library  ;  but 
to  make  any  extensive  use  possible  there  must  be  a  working 
jxHt,  and  that  means  a  live,  growing  library,  closely  correlated 
with  the  course  of  studv. 

Museum.  A  school  museum,  though  less  common  as  vet, 
should  be  a  most  valuable  adjunct  of  even*  school  librarw 


70  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

This  should  be  incidentally  a  storage  and  display  room  for 
special  apparatus  not  in  regular  use,  whether  purchased  or 
homemade.  It  should  contain  the  constantly  growing  col- 
lections of  relics,  biological  specimens,  products,  minerals, 
pressed  leaves,  flowers,  or  butterflies ;  also  models,  illustrative 
material,  and  specimens  of  the  best  drawings  and  written 
work  of  each  year.  It  should  grow  not  only  by  additions 
but  bv  substitution  of  better  specimens  for  poorer  ones. 
It  should  represent  the  enthusiasm  and  industry  of  the 
school  rather  than  mere  expenditure  by  the  authorities. 
Thus  it  will  serve  as  a  constant  stimulus  to  intelligent 
collecting  and  to  excellence  in  achievement.  No  greater 
reward  should  stimulate  the  child  than  the  prospect  of 
having  his  specimens  or  his  work  placed  in  the  permanent 
museum.  A  system  of  labeling  should  be  adopted  which 
will  in  itself  be  a  standard  of  neatness  and  which  will  give 
the  scientific  classification  or  other  useful  data,  the  date  of 
accession,  and  particularly  the  name  of  the  maker,  collector, 
or  contributor.  The  collection  may  include  anything  from 
primary  spelling  lists  to  traveling  art  exhibits,  or  from  a 
collection  of  postage  stamps  to  a  manufacturer's  exhibit 
of  agricultural  machinery. 

Phonograph.  A  good  phonograph  which  will  play  the  best 
standard  records  must  now  be  regarded  as  an  almost  indis- 
pensable adjunct  of  a  well-equipped  school.  Its  uses  are  so 
numerous,  entertaining,  and  instructive  as  to  make  it  a  most 
profitable  investment.  Routine  marching  of  classes  ;  regular 
accompaniments  for  class  singing,  indoor  and  outdoor  games, 
gymnastics,  calisthenics  and  folk-dancing  ;  vocal  and  instru- 
mental instruction  and  community  concerts,  —  for  all  of  these 
this  instrument  is  invaluable. 

Playground  equipment.  Playground  equipment  likewise 
adds  tremendously  to  the  interest  and  power  of  the  school. 
Even  a  small  school  may  have  a  sand  bin,  swings,  a  slide 


APPARATUS  /I 

for  the  little  children,  horizontal  bar,  volley-ball  and  tether- 
ball  outfits,  croquet  set,  basket-ball  court,  baseball  diamonds, 
running  track,  and  jumping  pit.  Other  apparatus  may  be 
added  as  it  may  be  found  useful.  Mr.  H.  S.  Curtis  shows 
that,  with  the  aid  of  the  boys,  an  effective  equipment  for  a 
small  school  may  be  constructed  for  from  eight  to  twenty 
dollars,  "Very  likely  to  most  rural  teachers,"  he  says,  "the 
program  thus  outlined  seems  ambitious,  perhaps  impossible 
of  realization.  It  does  certainly  require  that  the  teacher 
should  have  the  cooperation  of  the  children,  and  to  some 
extent  the  sympathy  of  the  neighborhood  as  well.  But  if  she 
wishes  the  cooperation  of  the  children,  what  better  method 
can  there  be  than  to  do  something  in  which  they  are  inter- 
ested ?  It  must  be  remembered  too  that  it  is  quite  as  im- 
portant and  legitimate  a  part  of  modern  education  for  the 
children  to  learn  to  work  for  the  common  welfare  as  it  is 
to  study  aritlimetic  or  geography;  that  the  most  of  the  things 
they  will  do  will  be  the  best  kind  of  manual  training  and 
may  properly  be  done  in  school  time  if  the  directors  are  in 
sympathy  with  the  work."  ^ 

Care  of  equipment.  A  reasonable  sense  of  responsibility 
for  public  property,  any  consideration  for  the  teaching  values 
of  the  equipment  or  a  care  for  the  development  of  civic 
righteousness  among  the  children,  would  demand  that  ade- 
quate provision  be  made  for  the  careful  protection  and  pres- 
.ervation  of  all  books,  apjxiratus,  and  equipment.  This  is 
incomparably  easier  to  do  if  the  children  are  partners  in 
the  matter  and  haw  spent  time  and  energy  in  preparing 
and  collecting  the  materials.  The  apjxn-atus  which  they  have 
helped  to  make  they  will  be  zealous  in  protecting  from  others 
as  well  as  in  using  carefully  themselves.  Their  interest  in  the 
protection  and  preservation  of  equipment  may  be  made  still 
more  keen  by  their  cooperation  in  the  making  of  cases  and 

'  II.  S.  Curtis,  Play  and  Recreation,  p.  51.    Ginn  and  Company. 


72  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

cabinets  for  it  and  in  cataloguing^,  checking,  and  caring  for  it. 
Elected  monitors  are  most  desirable  custodians.  By  all 
means  let  there  be  full  enjoyment  of  the  sense  of  joint 
ownership  and  joint  responsibility.  Dilapidated  or  disfigured 
articles  should  invite  not  heedless  handling  and  destruction 
but  careful  repair  or  rei)lacenient  by  better  specimens. 

General  principles  quoted.  The  following  admirable  sum- 
mary of  this  topic  is  given  by  Dr.  V.  B.  Dresslar^  : 

The  general  principles  whicli  seem  to  be  emerging  to  guide  us 
in  the  matter  of  school  apparatus  may  be  summed  up  and  stated 
as  follows : 

1 .  Tlie  more  thoroughly  teachers  are  educated  and  trained  for 
their  work,  the  less  need  for  specially  prepared  and  complicated 
apparatus. 

2.  I'he  better  the  curriculum  is  adjusted  to  the  needs  and 
capabilities  of  children,  the  fewer  requirements  for  experiments 
or  methods  demanding  apparatus  beyond  the  power  of  the 
teacher  to  supply. 

3.  The  simpler  the  apparatus  and  the  more  natural  the  experi- 
ment or  method,  the  more  satisfactory  are  tlie  results  for  children 
of  the  elementary  and  high-school  grades. 

4.  Apparatus  made  by  the  pupils  and  teachers  working  to- 
gether, or  by  the  pupils  themselves,  often  serves  to  impress  the 
essential  purpose  of  an  experiment  to  better  advantage  than  more 
perfect  laborator}'  appliances  furnished  ready-made. 

5.  It  is  better  for  the  pupils  themselves  to  perform  a  simple 
significant  experiment  illustrative  of  some  important  truth  than  it 
is  for  the  teacher  to  perform  in  their  presence  a  more  elaborate 
experiment  directed  toward  the  same  end. 

6.  School  appliances  designed  to  illustrate  those  forces  and 
phenomena  of  nature  which  have  proved  themselves  significant 
are  more  important  than  those  which  give  spectacular  results  not 
readily  seen  outside  the  schoolroom  and  less  obviously  related  to 
the  immediate  needs  of  life. 

1  Article  on  Apparatus  in  Cyclopedia  of  Kducation,  Vol.  I.  The  Mac- 
millan  Company. 


APPARATUS  73 

7.  Good  teachers  are  increasingly  utilizing  machine  shops, 
electric-lighting  plants,  water  systems,  scientific  agriculture,  and 
manufacturing  industries  of  all  sorts  to  supplement  school 
experiments  and  to  render  them  more  significant. 

There  is  a  growing  use  of  photographs,  picture  post  cards, 
illustrated  magazines,  stereopticon  slides  and  projectoscopes  to 
bring  distant  scenes  within  reach  of  school  children.  The  only 
danger  here  is  that  such  material  may  absorb  an  undue  share 
of  time  and  the  real  world  around  them  may  never  be  made 
significant. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  From  the  records  or  from  careful  estimates  for  the  past 
few  years  determine  w-hat  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  teachers  in 
your  school  or  city  has  been  expended  on  apparatus. 

2.  Estimating  the  increased  value  of  the  lessons  in  which  it  was 
used,  what  profit  on  the  investment  would  you  say  this  apparatus 
has  earned  during  the  past  year .' 

3.  Estimate  likewise  the  value  of  any  special  sets  or  pieces  of 
apparatus.  Which  of  it  is  indispensable  ?  Which  of  it  could  be 
dispensed  with  without  detriment  ? 

4.  Study  the  ecjuipmcnt  listed  in  any  supply  company's  cata- 
logue as  follows :  (<?)  Which  pieces  are  inherently  instructive  ? 
(fi)  Which  are  labor-savers  ?  (r)  Which  save  labor  that  would  in 
itself  be  educative  ?  (d)  For  which  could  homemade  equipment 
be  profitably  substituted  ?  (e)  Which  would  be  used  too  little  to 
justify  purchase  for  your  school  ? 

5.  List  the  physical  principles  involved  in  the  construction  of 
several  familiar  machines  and  instruments,  such  as  the  typewriter, 
telephone,  gasoline  motor,  thermos  bottle,  etc.  Would  these  be 
satisfactory  apparatus  for  teaching  these  principles  ? 

6.  Study  each  available  chart  as  follows :  (a)  Does  it  afford 
information  not  readily  accessible  in  objects  or  in  textbooks  ? 
(/>)  Does  it  stimulate  or  forestall  organization  by  the  pupils  ? 
(r)  Could  it  have  been  made  bv  the  class  profitabl)'  ?  (</)  Sum- 
marize all  the  arguments  for  and  against  its  use. 


74  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

7.  Plan  five  collections  of  natural  specimens  or  products  of 
your  section  the  making  of  which  would  be  particularly  profitable 
for  the  children  in  school. 

8.  Plan  a  library'  and  museum  for  your  school  indicating 
arrangement  of  shelves,  cupboards,  wall  and  cabinet  displays. 
If  there  is  not  a  special  room  available,  plan  for  utilizing  avail- 
able space  in  one  or  more  classrooms  or  office  rooms.  If  a 
good  beginning  has  already  been  made,  plan  im]3ro\'emcnts 
and  extensions. 

9.  Make  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  improvements  planned, 
all  labor  and  materials  possible  being  contributed  by  the  school. 

10.   Make    similar   plans    and    estimates    for    extensions    and 
improvements  of  the  playground. 

READINGS 

Burks.    Health  and  the  School,  chap.  xv. 

Curtis.    Play  and  Recreation,  chap.  v. 

Dodge    and    Kikchwev.     Teaching    of    Geography    in    Elementary 

Schools,   chap.   xvii. 
Lincoln.    Everyday  Pedagogy,  chap.  iv. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education 

Bulletin    No.   jj,    1913,    "A    List    of    Books    Suited    to    a    High 

School   Library." 
Bulletin  Xo.  4S,  191 4,  "The  Educational  Museum  of  the  St.  Louis 

Public  Schools." 


CHAPTER  VIII 
SCHOOL  HOUSEKEEPING 

Standards  and  traditions.  The  housekeeping  of  a  family 
or  of  a  community  is  not  a  matter  of  time  or  of  means  but 
of  standards.  To  set  right  hving  standards  is  among  the 
school's  highest  privileges.  It  is  done  not  through  study 
and  instruction  but  through  ideals  and  training,  not  by  set 
courses  in  domestic  arts  but  by  daily  effort  and  environment. 
It  is  a  sad  commentary  on  the  educative  influence  of  a 
public  school  that  it  inures  its  pupils  to  housekeeping  con- 
ditions which  would  be  tolerated  in  only  the  worst  of  the 
homes  from  which  its  pupils  come.  The  most  refined 
children  cannot  attain  their  mental  development  in  the 
midst  of  littered  and  mud-tracked  floors  and  walls  disfigured 
with  scrawls  and  spitballs  without  losing  some  of  their 
dislike  for  coarseness  and  ugliness.  Nor  can  the  children 
from  the  crudest  homes  learn  in  the  midst  of  scrupulously 
kept  surroundings  and  tastefully  tinted  walls  adorned  with 
masterpieces  of  art  without  imbibing  something  of  an 
enduring  love  and  ambition  for  such  environment.  Most 
of  the  formal  lessons  are  of  no  greater  practical  value  to 
the  community  than  is  the  subtle  growth  of  ideals  that 
make  for  worthier  manhood  and  womanhood,  and  not  least 
among  these  is  the  ideal  of  tasteful,  well-kept  surroundings. 
The  difference  between  the  thrifty,  well-kept  appearance  of 
some  communities  and  the  shiftless,  dilapidated  appearance 
of  others  is  not  one  of  wealth  but  of  ideals.  It  is  more  eco- 
nomical to  keep  things  up  than  to  lot  them  run  down.  It  is 
cheaper   to  be   neat  and   orderly  than  to  be  slovenlw     Hut 

75 


^^  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

neighborhood  traditions  far  more  than  any  doctrine  or  pre- 
cept determine  the  way  the  people  hve.  The  pecuhar  and 
serious  sanitary  dangers  of  the  place  where  children  congre- 
gate for  their  daily  work  make  anotlier  powerful  argument 
for  the  highest  standards  of  school  housekeeping. 

Janitors.  Trained  or  even  intelligent  janitors  are  too  rare 
to  warrant  educators  in  shifting  this  responsibility  from  their 
own  shoulders.  Janitors  must  ordinarily  be  patiently  trained, 
systematically  instructed,  and  ceaselessly  supervised  by  those 
in  charge.  It  is  economy  to  pay  salaries  sufficient  to  employ 
janitors  of  ability  and  reliability.  They  should  be  such  as 
can  manage  the  heating  and  ventilating  apparatus  with 
economy  and  efficiency.  They  should  be  such  as  can  aid 
the  management  of  the  school  by  supervising  the  basements 
and  playgrounds  and  by  taking  entire  charge  of  the  premises 
out  of  school  hours.  They  should  take  an  active  pride  in  the 
sanitary  conditions  and  attractive  appearances  of  the  school. 
But  it  must  rest  upon  the  teachers  and  principal  in  charge 
to  see  that  these  things  are  done.  There  must  be  no  blam- 
ing of  neglect  upon  the  janitor.  There  must  be  no  neglect 
to  blame.  Some  of  the  definite  requirements  of  janitor 
service  are  the  following : 

Floor  cleaning.  Floors  must  be  cleaned  daily  in  all  rooms 
that  are  in  regular  use.  The  cleaning  must  always  be  done 
after  the  school  is  dismissed  for  the  day  and  with  windows 
wide  open.  It  must  be  done  thoroughly  with  special  atten- 
tion to  the  corners  and  half-hidden  crannies  about  the  feet 
of  the  desks.  The  advantage  of  desks  that  offer  no  such 
broom-proof  harbors  for  dirt  is  obvious.  A  schoolroom 
should  never  be  dry-swept.  It  is  better  to  leave  the  dust 
on  the  floor  than  to  scatter  the  more  dangerous  part  of  it 
through  the  air  and  over  the  furniture.  Dry  brooms  remove 
the  larger  trash  which,  though  unsightly,  is  ordinarily  not 
insanitary  ;    but   the   dust,   which   there    is   reason   to   fear. 


SCHOOL  HOUSEKEEPING  -j-j 

remains  in  the  room,  where  hands  and  garments  will  gather 
it  up  and  breathing  will  gather  it  in.  Several  means  are 
used  for  preventing  the  rising  of  the  dust.  Sprinkling 
leaves  the  dust  in  some  spots  unmoistened  while  converting 
the  rest  into  mud,  most  of  which  sticks  to  the  floor  until  it 
dries  and  returns  to  dust  again.  Moistened  paper  or  saw- 
dust strewn  over  the  floor  has  the  advantage  that  most  of 
the  dust  sticks  to  it  and  is  swept  out  with  it.  Oiled  sawdust 
is  even  better.  This  may  be  supplied  very  economically 
by  keeping  a  barrel  of  common  sawdust  and  occasionally 
sprinkling  oil  over  the  top,  allowing  it  to  drain  through. 
The  sawdust  is  used  from  the  top  when  the  surplus  oil 
has  thoroughly  drained  off.  The  application  of  the  oil  di- 
rectly to  the  floor  at  intervals  of  a  few  weeks  is  perhaps  as 
effective  for  keeping  down  the  dust,  for  dust  which  becomes 
saturated  with  oil  is  too  heavy  to  rise  into  the  air,  but  the 
sweeping  is  usually  not  as  thorough  and  the  excessive  oil 
is  often  quite  objectionable,  particularly  to  long  skirts.  It  is 
also  more  wasteful  of  oil. 

Vacuum  cleaning  is  undoubtedly  the  best  solution  of  the 
problem  of  getting  dust  out  of  the  room.  An  installed 
vacuum  cleaner  with  proper  attachments  for  reaching  every 
place  in  the  room  where  dust  or  dirt  can  lodge  is  probably 
the  most  hygienic  and  economical  method  in  large  schools. 
Portable  cleaners  wliicli  suck  up  the  dust  but  drive  the  same 
air  back  into  the  room  are  said  to  act  as  redistributcn-s  of 
bacteria  and  the  finer  dust  particles.  They  should  be  used 
with  caution. 

Dusting.  The  "deadly  feather  duster"  must  not  be  tol- 
erated in  school.  Dry  brushes  of  anv  kind  merely  viovc  the 
dust.  They  cannot  rcviovc  it.  The  most  effective  method 
of  dusting  furniture  is  wiping  with  large  cloths,  which 
should  be  washed  out  frequently  and  ver\'  slightlv  oiled  with 
kerosene.     A   heavy  oil  should  never  be  put  on  furniture 


78  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

or  in  any  place  where  hands  and  clothing  must  touch  it. 
A  very  little  kerosene  in  the  water  in  which  the  cloths  are 
rinsed  out  is  perhaps  sufficient,  just  enough  is  wanted 
to  make  the  dust  cling  to  the  cloth  but  not  enough  for  the 
oil  to  cling  to  the  desk.  Desks  should  all  be  wiped  off 
every  morning  before  school  opens.  The  dust  of  the  day 
and  of  the  sweeping  settles  during  the  night. 

Disinfecting.  At  least  once  a  month,  and  at  any  time 
when  there  has  been  chance  of  infection  by  contagious 
disease,  all  the  desks  and  door-knobs,  woodwork,  stair-rails, 
window-trim,  and  every  place  where  dust  might  find  lodg- 
ment or  germs  cling  with  the  oil  and  perspiration  of  the 
hands  should  be  thoroughly  wiped  off  with  a  strong  ap- 
proved disinfectant.  This  thorough  wiping  is  really  not  a 
very  tedious  task  if  done  with  large  cloths  and  in  an  orderly 
and  systematic  routine.  Globes  and  apparatus  not  readily 
cleaned  should  be  kept  under  cover  when  not  in  use. 
The  making  of  neat  cambric  covers  for  apparatus  is  an 
appropriate  exercise  in  domestic  art  for  the  smaller  girls. 

Chalk  dust.  Chief  among  dust  problems  is  the  one  of 
chalk  dust.  The  direct  injury  which  may  be  done  to  lungs 
and  air  passages  by  the  flying  particles  can  hardly  be  o\-er- 
estimated.  It  is  not  the  use  of  crayon  that  is  harmful  but 
the  dry  erasing  and  the  tapping  of  erasers  together  to  rid 
them  of  dust  accumulations.  Erasing  with  moist  sponges 
or  cloths  remedies  this  difficulty  but  introduces  others,  in 
the  w-ay  of  keeping  the  sponges  just  moist  enough  to  avoid 
muddy  streaks  on  the  board.  Chalk  troughs  which  hold 
both  erasers  and  crayons  out  of  the  dust  by  means  of  wire 
coverings  or  raised  center  strips  are  on  the  market  or  can 
easily  be  provided  by  a  janitor  or  manual-training  class. 
The  construction  of  the  chalk  trough  must  j^ermit  its  being 
cleaned  easily  by  the  janitor.  l'>aser  cleaners  of  various 
types  and  degrees  of  efficiency  are  also  available. 


SCHOOL  HOUSEKEEPING  79 

Catch-alls.  Constant  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  is  necessary  to  prevent  accumulations  of  trash  in 
cupboards,  closets,  drawers,  and  other  out-of-the-way  nooks 
and  corners,  and  particularly  in  the  desks  of  the  pupils.  In 
the  basement  and  storerooms  a  janitor  of  inferior  sort  is 
very  likely  to  have  accumulations  which  violate  all  standards 
of  sanitation  and  fire  protection. 

Educative  values  and  pupil  participation.  It  is  due  the 
children  that  they  should  receive  not  only  the  suggestive 
values  of  good  school  housekeeping  through  the  condi- 
tions of  the  premises  and  building  but  also  the  direct 
values  through  active  participation  in  the  process.  Keep- 
ing a  room  thoroughly  clean  is  a  fundamentally  valuable 
educative  experience  for  any  boy  or  girl.  Too  many  of 
them  are  deprived  of  this  privilege  at  home.  Dusting  and 
"  tidying-up  "  a  room  should  become  genuinely  pleasurable, 
far  more  pleasurable  than  enduring  a  room  that  lacks  it. 
It  is  a  poor  class  that  would  not  rather  keep  its  own 
room  cleaned  up  than  to  have  the  task  done  in  slipshod 
fashion  by  the  janitor.  At  least  the  pupils  should  make 
it  possible  to  demand  of  the  janitor  thoroughness  in  the 
sweeping  and  heavier  tasks,  by  themselves  doing  the  dust- 
ing and  lighter  cleaning.  Assuredly  parents  who  do  not 
provide  adequate  funds  for  proper  janitor  service  cannot 
complain  at  having  their  children  do  anything  necessary 
to  keep  in  a  seemly  and  sanitary  condition  the  place  where 
characters  and  ideals  are  being  formed.  Under  wise  guid- 
ance the  children  themselves  will  come  to  take  a  pride  in 
the  spotless  condition  of  the  room.  Competition  between 
rooms  may  well  be  encouraged.  It  should  become  a  matter 
of  pride  and  credit  to  each  pupil  that  his  own  desk  and  its 
immediate  environment  is  always  clean.  Me  should  gladly 
pick  up  the  trash  when  "  somebody  else  put  it  there  "  rather 
than  have  it  there  at  all.    Monitors  with   the  backing  of 


80  SCHOOL  EFFICIKNCY 

the  social  spirit  of  the  room  will  stimulate  the  less  respon- 
sive. The  inside  as  well  as  the  outside  of  every  desk  should 
always  be  left  in  order.  Each  desk  should  be  provided  with 
a  dust  cloth  if  necessary  in  order  that  it  be  kept  spotless. 
Monitors  should  see  to  it  that  the  blackboards  are  left  per- 
fectly clean,  the  teacher's  desk  and  every  piece  of  apparatus 
in  proper  order,  liroom  and  dustpan  should  be  convenient 
so  that  mud  tracked  in  may  be  promptly  brushed  up  at  any 
time  of  the  day. 

Summary  of  National  Education  Association  recommen- 
dations. The  following  "  Summary  of  Recommendations  " 
made  by  the  Committee  on  Janitor  Service  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Science  Instruction  of  the  National  Education 
Association  (191 3)  is  a  useful  statement  of  how  practical 
and  educative  values  are  gotten  through  ]:)upil  cooperation. 
Such  supervision  by  pupils  does  more  than  secure  effective 
janitor  service.  It  teaches  facts  of  value  which  are  not  in 
textbooks,  and  more  important  still  are  the  habits  and  ideals 
which  it  establishes. 

To  standardize  janitor  service,  or  school  housekeeping,  the  first 
step  is  to  get  the  facts.  Every  building,  as  ever\'  room  in  it,  has 
its  own  conditions  to  be  learned  and  controlled. 

This  can  be  done  with  least  expense  and  greatest  effectiveness 
by  enlisting  pupils'  cooperation.  Expense  is  negligible.  Effective- 
ness is  along  three  lines  :  (i)  Practically  constant  supervision  which 
good  housekeepers  find  indispensable ;  (2)  permanent  records  of 
sanitary  details  in  place  of  guesses  and  opinions ;  (3)  interest 
of  future  voters  and  home-makers  in  such  details  by  practice  in 
regulating  them. 

Health  officers.  .\]JiJ()inl  a  group  of  health  officers  in  each  class- 
room, for  periods  so  limited  that  each  child  has  sei-vice  once  a  year. 
Credit  their  work  to  "  physiology  and  hygiene,"  or  "  nature  study," 
"  domestic  science,"  physics,  chemistry,  biology. 

Temperature.  Health  officers  shall  read  thermometers  hourly, 
record  readings  in  a  substantial  book,  chart  them  (for  example 


SCHOOL   HOUSEKEEPING  8i 

nurses'  clinical  charts)  on  a  blackboard  reserved  for  it,  where 
pupils,  principal,  janitor,  and  visitors  can  see  perhaps  a  week's 
record  at  a  glance.  When  conditions  permit,  they  shall  readjust 
heat  sources,  ventilators,  or  windows  to  secure  proper  temperature, 
which,  when  artificial  heat  is  used,  should  never  exceed  68°  F. 
Pupils  over  eight  years  of  age  can  do  this ;  sometimes  younger. 

Dustiness.  In  high  schools  health  officers  can  measure  or  esti- 
mate it  Ijy  cultures,  or  by  the  ''  sugar  method  "'  recommended  by 
the  Committee  on  Standard  Methods  for  the  Examination  of  Air. 
The  standard  is  two  thousand  particles  (visible  under  a  two-thirds 
inch  objective)  to  a  cubic  inch  of  air. 

In  elementary  grades  they  can  wijic  surfaces  with  a  (Vfi/H  cloth. 
If  dusting  was  properly  done,  nothing  is  wiped  off.  Floor,  wood- 
work, and  furnishings  should  be  as  immaculate  as  in  the  best-kept 
home  or  hospital.  This  test  should  come  at  the  beginning  of  the 
.session. 

Health  officers  .should  be  responsible  for  the  moist  erasing  of 
chalk,  but  pupils  should  not  be  required  to  dust  rooms.  Officers 
should  record  sweeping  of  room  or  corridor  while  pupils  or  teachers 
are  obliged  to  use  the  rooms.  (Severe  penalties  for  this  violation 
of  sanitary  rights  should  be  enforced  by  school  boards.) 

Elementary  pupils  over  eight  years  of  age  can  do  this,  including 
record  keeping. 

Relative  humidity.  ( )fficcrs  over  eleven  vears  of  age  can  be 
taught  to  use  safely  the  whirling  wet-drj'  bulb  thermometer  recom- 
mended by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  'i'he  danger  of 
breaking  is  lessened  by  tying  to  the  back  a  stick  projecting  a  few- 
inches  beyond  the  bulbs.  One  instrument  is  enough  for  an  ordi- 
nary building.  Relative  humidity  should  be  recorded  and  charted 
about  a  half  hour  after  the  session  opens.  It  can  well  be  done 
later  also.  Where  possible,  officers  shall  readjust  artificial  sources 
of  humidity  (evaporating  pans,  steam  radiators,  etc.)  or  windows, 
to  maintain  relative  humidity  at  50  per  cent. 

Air  currents.  When  ventilating  flues  have  no  current  indicators 
of  their  own,  officers  should  measure  currents  with  an  anemom- 
eter (one  is  enough  for  the  usual  building),  or  estimate  them 
with  candle  or  joss  stick.  Pupils  over  eleven  can  use  them, 
perhaps  younger.    The  effectiveness  of  air  currents  is  best  learned 


82  SCHOOL   K1-"1'IC1EXCV 

by  comparing  the  smell  of  schoolroom  air  with  that  out  of 
doors  —  the  standard  of  freshness.  Air  currents  and  freshness 
should  be  recorded  at  least  once  at  the  middle  of  each  session. 
Officers  should  make  such  readjustments  of  windows  or  ventilators 
as  indicated. 

Cleanliness.  Cleanliness  of  washbowls,  waterclosets,  and  of 
any  other  part  of  building  or  yard  should  be  recorded  once  each 
session.  Dirt  on  windows  sometimes  diminishes  illumination  one 
quarter  to  one  third,  measured  by  a  photometer.  The  instrument 
is  costly,  and  until  a  less  expensive  method  is  devised  the  opinion 
of  health  officers  can  be  given.  Dirty  windows  are  important  in 
rooms  badly  ventilated  or  specially  exposed  to  smoke  and  dust. 
Such  windows  sometimes  need  washing  once  in  two  weeks.  Pupils 
over  eleven,  possiblv  N'ounger,  can  do  this  reporting. 

General  suggestions.  Health  officers  from  older  grades  can  be 
appointed  for  rooms  where  pupils  are  too  young  for  any  special 
detail. 

When  a  fault  is  found  beyond  pupils'  function  to  remedy,  it 
should  be  reported  immediately  to  the  proper  authority,  probably 
the  principal.  It  is  w'ise  never  to  "  interfere  with  the  janitor." 
This  report  and  the  result  following  should  be  stated  in  "  Health 
Officers'  Permanent  Records." 

For  other  than  classrooms  and  for  corridors,  groups  can  be 
specially  appointed,  their  duties  being  suitably  modified. 

Some,  if  not  all.  of  these  exercises  in  practical  sanitation  can  be 
undertaken  quietly  at  any  time  by  any  teacher  in  charge  of  any 
room.  One  or  the  other  is  already  proved  practicable  in  individual 
schools  within  the  last  ten  years.  The  accumulated  data  will  be 
invaluable.  It  is  the  practical  first  step  in  reducing  "  school 
diseases,"  including  tuberculosis,  which  increases  all  through  school 
years  (except  in  open-air  schools)  and  among  teachers  has  a 
mortality  rate  higher  than  among  the  general  public. 

These  facts  will  help  demonstrate  that  school  housekeepers, 
like  others,  must  be  trained  in  sanitary  methods.  Janitors'  salaries 
and  their  supervisors'  often  equal  and  sometimes  exceed  salaries 
of  teachers,  principals,  and  other  trained  workers  whose  responsi- 
bilities are  no  more  serious,  and  who  are  carefully  pre|)ared  and 
tested  before  appointment. 


SCHOOL  HOUSEKEEPING  83 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Make  an  abstract  of  the  regulations  of  your  state,  county,  or 
city  regarding  the  cleaning  of  school  buildings. 

2.  Inspect  one  or  more  schools  thoroughly  and  make  a  detailed 
report  as  to  their  cleanliness. 

3.  How  much  of  the  cleaning  can  reasonably  be  required  of  the 
janitor  service  provided  for  each  of  these  schools .' 

4.  How  much  should  wisely  be  secured  through  the  children  .' 

5.  Prepare  a  set  of  rules  for  janitors  to  guide  them  in  keeping 
the  school  cleaned  properly.  Study  all  such  sets  of  rules  you  can 
obtain  and  adapt  the  best  points  to  your  school.  Include  pro- 
visions for  corridors,  stairs,  etc. 

6.  Similarly  sketch  a  set  of  regulations  such  as  you  would 
seek  to  have  the  children  of  a  given  grade  prepare  for  their  own 
government. 

7.  Study  the  advertising  and,  if  practicable,  samples  of  floor  oils 
and  disinfectants  for  school  use. 

8.  From  supply-house  catalogues  and  other  advertising  media, 
make  a  comparative  study  of  the  advantages  of  brooms,  brushes, 
self-oiling  brushes,  vacuum  cleaners,  and  other  appliances  for 
cleaning. 

READINGS 

Allen.    Civics  and  Health,  chap.  xiv. 
Dresslak.    School  Hygiene,  chap.  xxiv. 
Prudiiex.    Dust  and  its  Dangers. 
PUTNA^^    School  Janitors,  Mothers  and  Health. 
School  Laws  and  Regulations  (any  available). 


CHAPTER   IX 

HEALTH  RESPONSIBILITY  OK  THE  SCHOOL 

A  growing  responsibility.  Until  the  present  era  the 
Greeks  were  the  world's  most  enlightened  educators.  With 
them  schooling  was  first  of  all  a  matter  of  physical  and 
spiritual  development.  In  much  less  degree  was  it  literary. 
Their  curriculum  had  in  it  little  of  books  and  much  of 
games.  Their  educated  man  became  a  model  for  sculptors. 
Their  schools  created  no  problems  of  hygiene  or  contagion. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  a  contempt  of  the  fiesh, — 
associated  always  with  the  World  on  one  hand  and  with 
the  Devil  on  the  other, —  together  with  a  blind  dependence 
on  authority  and  writ,  narrowed  the  meaning  of  education 
to  mere  book  study.  Learning,  unhappily,  became  associated 
with  frail  bodies,  spectacled  eyes,  and  aloofness  to  the  affairs 
of  men.  This  was  bad  enough  for  the  individual  scholar 
but,  with  the  ad\ent  of  democracy's  universal  education, 
modern  schools  have  tended  to  impose  the  same  medieval 
bookishness  upon  all  classes,  and  furthermore  have  infinitely 
aggravated  the  difficulty  by  the  sheer  immensity  of  the  edu- 
cational machine.  The  modern  school  has  caused  its  own 
f~  peculiar  hygienic  problems,  and  until  quite  recently  it  has 
caused  them  much  more  rapidly  than  it  has  solved  them. 

liducational  thinkers  have  always  recognized  the  dangers 
of  making  school  life  too  confined  and  sedentary.  Locke 
and  Rousseau  plead  eloquently  for  the  "  mens  sana  in  cor- 
pore  sano."  Vittorino  da  Feltrc  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
Salzmann  in  the  seventeenth,  and  the  Jesuits  through  several 
centuries,   allowed   liberally   for   physical    exercise    in   their 

84 


HEALTH   RESPONSIBILITY  OF  THE  SCHOOL     85 

systems  of  training.  Others  have  permitted  or  expected  it 
but  usually  as  something  outside  of,  rather  than  essential  to, 
education  proper.  Formal  recognition  of  hygienic  dangers 
arising  from  the  school  work  itself,  and  legal  provision  to 
combat  them,  seem  to  have  begun  with  a  French  law  of 
1833.  Official  inspection  of  pupils  and  premises  with  refer- 
ence to  health  conditions  has  been  obligatory  in  all  French 
schools,  public  and  private,  since  1887.  Germany  was  con- 
siderably slower,  while  England  and  this  country  hardly 
woke  up  to  the  subject  until  the  twentieth  century.  Already, 
however,  there  is  more  or  less  adequate  medical  inspection 
and  health  supervision  in  all  but  the  most  backward  school 
systems,  and  the  extension  of  such  provisions  is  so  rapid 
that  statistics  regarding  them  become  out  of  date  before  they 
can  be  compiled  and  published. 

A  pressing  social  problem.  Compulsory  attendance,] 
whether  compulsion  is  by  law,  public  opinion,  or  family 
ideals,  has  upset  the  process  of  natural  selection  which  once 
eliminated  the  unfit  from  school  (along  with  most  of  the' 
fit).  The  schools  have  now  become  the  great  clearing  1 
houses  not  only  for  intelligence,  social  ideals,  and  standards  j 
but  also  for  disease  germs  and  whatever  else  may  be  passed' 
about  among  the  children  of  the  community.  It  is  well. 
The  "  common  herd  "  share  in  the  political  and  intellectual 
prerogatives  of  the  few  and  they  as  freely  share  with,  the 
few  those  curses  of  disease  and  vice  which  are  theirs  by 
virtue  of  their  being  a  common  herd.  Thus  the  public 
school  is  bringing  about  the  brotherhood  of  man  both  by 
making  the  knowledge  of  the  few  accessible  to  all  and  by 
making  the  curses  of  the  many  the  problem  which  all  must 
solve  in  sclf-i)reservation.  rublic  education  makes  impera-j 
tive  the  conquest  of  contagion.  Scarlet  fever  and  diphtheria 
must  go  the  way  of  yellow  fever.  Colds  and  t)phoid  must 
come  to  be   considered  like   theft  and  arson.    Crime  may 


-->' 


86  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

be  regarded  more  tolerantly  as  a  disease,  but  disease  less 
tolerantly  as  a  crime. 

Sanitary  dangers  and  ideals.  The  frequency  and  extent 
of  epidemics  among  school  children  and  the  terrible  toll 
they  have  taken  are  sufficient  accusation  against  the  school 
as  a  disease-distributing  agency.  Few  conditions  could  be 
conceived  of  more  favorable  for  the  transmission  of  infection 
than  an  insanitary  school.  Children  come  from  every  sort 
of  home  environment ;  they  play  in  every  sort  of  place  ;  they 
come  in  contact  with  all  grades  of  human  beings,  dogs, 
cats,  ash-barrels,  back  alleys,  and  worse.  Their  soiled  hands, 
sticky  faces,  and  sweaty  clothes  are  ideally  adapted  for 
carrying  germs.  Contamination  from  any  such  source  may 
be  readily  distributed  at  school  to  every  portion  of  the  com- 
munity by  physical  contact  among  the  children,  direct  or 
through  the  medium  of  pencils,  books,  drinking  cups,  towels, 
or  any  other  thing  which  they  make  use  of  in  common. 
On  the  other  hand,  prevention  more  than  keeps  pace  with 
the  peril.  "  Safety  first  "  applies  to  schools  as  well  as  to 
factories.  The  schools  "  of  the  people,  by  the  people  and 
for  the  people  "  shall  at  least  not  be  guilty  of  those  viola- 
tions of  public  safety  for  which  dairies,  meat  markets,  and 
other  private  enterprises  are  promptly  put  out  of  business. 
So  effectively  have  the  precautionary  measures  been  applied 
in  the  better  school  systems  tliat,  instead  of  closing  the 
schools  summarily  on  the  apjDcarance  of  an  epidemic  disease, 
the  school  is  regarded  as  the  safest  j^lace  for  children  to  be. 
Under  proper  sanitary  conditions  schools  should  no  more 
close  to  avoid  contagion  than  hospitals  should. 
/"  General  precautions,  l^recautions  against  contagion  include 
at  least  the  following  :  sanitary  drinking  fountains,  lavatories, 
and  toilets ;  elimination  of  common  towels  and  drinking 
cups  ;  insistence  on  clean  hands,  faces,  and  clothing ;  keep- 
ing hats  and  cloaks  on  separate  and  individual  hooks  or  in 


HEALTH   RESPONSIBILITY  OF  THE  SCHOOL     87 

private  lockers  ;  prohibition  of  the  chewing  of  pencils,  pens, 
and  books,  or  of  the  exchange  of  these  or  of  handkerchiefs 
or  other  personal  belongings ;  keeping  the  place  free  of 
flies  and  of  all  sorts  of  vermin  disease  carriers  ;  regular  and 
thorough  cleaning  of  the  rooms ;  disinfecting  of  desks, 
door-knobs,  etc.  ;  abundant  flushing  out  of  the  air  of  the 
room  ;  as  much  sunshine  as  practicable ;  and  the  prompt 
exclusion  or  sufficient  isolation  of  all  affected  pupils.  ^ 

Infectious  sprays.  Spitting,  coughing,  and  sneezing  are 
among  the  most  dangerous  of  common  practices.  By  this 
means  there  are  sprayed  out  into  the  air  countless  globules 
of  moisture  to  which  microbes  are  clinging.  These  are 
breathed  in  by  pupils  or  settle  upon  their  desks,  books,  or 
persons  and  are  soon  communicated  to  their  air  passages 
thus  giving  rise  to  epidemics  of  colds,  grippe,  or  worse. 
Every  child  should  be  vividly  taught  these  dangers  and 
rigidly  trained  never  to  cough,  sneeze,  or  spit  except  into 
his  handkerchief  or  other  receptacle.  The  best  receptacle 
is  a  piece  of  paper  that  is  immediately  burned. 

Drinking-cup  dangers.  Nature's  favorite  mode  of  trans- 
porting germs  is  by  the  mouth.  Common  cups  and  open 
buckets  are  now  almost  everywhere  prohibited  b_\-  law. 
Individual  cups  in  actual  use  are  so  troublesome  as  to  be 
almost  impracticable.  Keeping  them  separate  and  clean  is 
an  unending  nuisance,  while  the  promiscuous  lending  results 
in  their  being  neither  individual  nor  sanitary.  Paper  cups, 
such  as  are  provided  in  public  places  for  a  penny  in  the 
slot,  are  sanilar)'  but  rather  expensive.  Children  may  quickly 
learn  to  fold  a  sheet  of  clean  writing  paper  into  a  ven,' 
satisfactory  cup  for  a  single  drink.  However,  there  is  no 
longer  excuse  for  any  of  these  inadequate  makeshifts  in  a 
school's  equipment.  Sanitary  drinking  fountains  alone  should 
be  tolerated  as  facilities  for  drinking.  Where  nmning  water 
is  axailable  they  require  no  attention,  and  the  best  forms  come 


88  SCHOOL   EFFICIENCY 

as  near  to  being  perfectly  sanitary  as  could  be  hoped  for. 
From  the  many  forms  on  the  niarket  those  should  be  selected 
which  the  children  cannot  touch  or  inclose  with  their  lips. 
There  are  also  sanitary  fountains  adapted  for  attaching 
directly  to  a  water  cooler.  These  are  sold  at  a  \ery  low 
cost.  It  is  incumbent  upon  the  teacher  to  see  that  coolers 
are  emptied  and  rinsed  out  daily  and  scalded  weekly.  Rarely 
can  janitors  be  trusted  to  attend  faithfully  to  the  water 
supply  without  supervision. 

Clean  hands.  Clean  hands  must  be  made  the  conscious 
ideal  and  the  fixed  habit  of  children,  and  the  first  step  to 
this  end  is  the  providing  of  abundant  conveniences  for 
keeping  them  clean.  The  same  water  used  by  several  chil- 
dren or  a  basin  which  becomes  grimy  may  well  serve  as  a 
medium  for  communication  of  disease  rather  than  as 
a  preventive.  The  common  towel  is  another  evil  which  is 
now  quite  commonly  prohibited  by  law.  Its  dangers  need 
no  discussion.  Paper  towels  seem  to  be  the  most  satisfac- 
tory solution,  but  some  instruction  and  watchfulness  is 
necessary  to  secure  satisfaction  and  economy  in  their  use. 
Individual  towels,  like  the  individual  cups,  are  likely  to  be 
used  pretty  nuicli  in  common  and  to  become  very  much 
soiled.  If  used,  some  efficient  routine  plan  of  oversight 
is  necessary. 

The  rural  water  supply.  In  rural  sections  where  a  local 
water  supply  is  depended  upon,  special  consideration  must 
be  given  to  this  agency  of  contamination.  Serious  epi- 
demics of  typhoid  and  \arious  bowel  complaints  ha\e  fre- 
quently had  their  origin  in  the  country-school  water  su])])ly. 
Few  springs  or  small  streams  are  sufficiently  protected  fiom 
the  drainage  of  pigstys,  cow  lots,  and  human  habitations  to 
be  fit  for  drinking.  However  clear  and  cold  and  sparkling, 
such  water  supply  should  not  be  trusted  unless  frequently 
passed   upon   by  expert  authority.    Open   school  wells  are 


HEALTH   RESPONSIBILITY  OF  THE  SCHOOL     89 

a  favorite  repository  for  the  tin  cans  or  other  trash  which 
children  pick  up  about  the  premises.  The  far-off,  myste- 
rious splash  in  the  darkness  of  the  deep  well  is  fascinating  to  a 
small  boy.  With  the  aid  of  well-bucket  and  dipper  the  entire 
well  is  almost  certain  to  become  a  medium  for  the  culture 
and  exchange  of  mouth-carried  germs.  The  water  which 
is  slopped  about  the  curb  soon  trickles  back  into  the  well, 
carrying  the  surface  impurities  with  it.  Many  such  spots 
have  become  well-patronized  hog-wallows,  and  even  this  has 
not  lessened  the  faith  of  the  ignorant  in  the  healthful  qual- 
ity of  the  cold,  sparkling  water  which  is  drawn  from  the 
depths  by  the  slimy,  '"  moss-covered  bucket "  which  their 
innocency  knew.  At  least,  the  well  should  be  closed, 
a  pump  introduced,  and  the  surrounding  surface  so  pro- 
tected by  concrete  that  the  drainage  will  be  away  from  the 
well  and  seepage  into  it  impossible.  A  driven  or  bored 
well  is  safer. 

Segregation  of  suspects.  In  addition  to  these  general 
precautions  ample  provision  must  be  made  for  the  prompt 
detection  and  elimination  of  every  case  of  possible  con- 
tagion. The  medical  inspector  and  the  school  nurse  are 
the  best  agents  for  this  protection,  but  where  they  are  not 
constantly  accessible,  and  to  supplement  their  offices  where 
they  are,  the  teacher  should  be  able  to  recognize  the  com- 
moner symptoms  and  to  take  prompt  and  intelligent  pre- 
cautionary steps.  To  be  on  the  safe  side,  every  pupil 
developing  a  fever,  sore  throat,  or  eruption  of  almost  any 
kind  should  be  segregated  from  the  school  until  the  cause 
is  known  and  treated  and  until  the  proper  health  authority 
has  assumed  responsibility  for  the  case.  The  accompanv- 
ing  table  indicates  briefly  some  of  the  more  pronounced 
symptoms  of  the  frequent  contagious  diseases  of  children. 
The  length  of  time  during  which  the  affected  one  should  be 
excluded  from  school  is  also  given  and  the  time  that  children 


90  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

who  have  been  exposed  to  the  disease  but  wlio  do  not 
contract  it  should  be  segregated  for  the  protection  of  others. 
All  books  etc.  which  an  affected  pupil  has  used  and  with 
which  he  has  been  in  contact  should  be  thoroughly  dis- 
infected or  burned.  His  desk  and  other  objects  which 
may  have  been  infected  by  or  in  the  same  manner  as  him- 
self should  be  well  washed  with  a  suitable  disinfectant  as 
soon  as  he  is  suspected  and  segregated. 

COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES  AMONG 
SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Diphtheria.  Symptoms  variable  and  difTicull  to  determine.  Sore 
throat  with  white  patches,  swelling  of  lymph  nodes  in  neck  about 
angle  of  jaw,  great  debility  and  lassitude.  Exclude  patient  until 
fully  recovered  and  disinfected  and  cultures  taken  from  nose  and 
throat  on  two  successive  days  contain  no  diphtheria  bacilli.  Ex- 
clude children  exposed  to  disease  until  same  culture  tests  have 
been  made  as  are  required  of  patient.  When  diphtheria  appears, 
segregate  promptly  every  child  with  sore  throat  until  culture  tests 
have  been  made.  Get  instructions  from  the  nearest  health  author- 
ity as  to  taking  cultures  and  getting  them  examined.  Diphtheria 
is  ver}^  contagious  and  dangerous.  It  is  frequently  distributed  by 
means  of  infected  milk  supply. 

Measles.  Begins  like  cold  in  the  head,  with  feverishness,  run- 
ning nose,  inflamed  and  watery  eyes,  and  sneezing  ;  small  crescent- 
shaped  groups  of  mulberry-tinted  spots  appear  about  the  third 
day ;  rash  first  seen  on  forehead  and  face.  Rash  almost  dis- 
appears in  cold  air  and  returns  in  warmth.  Exclude  patient  at 
least  ten  days  and  until  recovery  and  disinfection.  Exclude  ex- 
posed pupils  fifteen  days  from  exposure  to  disease.  Danger  of 
infection  greatest  before  rash  appears. 

German  measles.  Less  serious  but  hard  to  distinguish  from 
scarlet  fever.  Illness  slight  and  sudden.  Probably  some  feverish- 
ness, sore  throat  and  inflamed  eyes  but  no  cold  in  head.  Lymph 
nodes  back  of  ears  enlarged.  Exclude  patient  as  in  measles  and 
those  exposed  from  eleventh  to  twenty-second  day  after  exposure. 


HEALTH   RESPONSIBILITY  OF  THE  SCHOOL     91 

Scarlet  fever.  Onset  is  usually  sudden,  with  headache,  languor, 
feverishness,  sore  throat,  and  often  vomiting.  Usually  within 
twent}-four  hours  the  rash  appears,  finely  spotted,  evenly  diffused, 
and  bright  red.  Rash  is  first  seen  on  the  neck  and  upper  part  of 
chest,  and  lasts  three  to  ten  days,  when  it  fades  and  the  skin  peels 
in  scales,  flakes,  or  even  large  pieces.  The  tongue  becomes  whitish 
with  bright  red  spots.  Eyes  not  watery  or  congested.  Exclude  at 
least  thirty  days  and  until  all  discharges  have  ceased  and  person 
is  disinfected.  Exclude  others  for  seven  days  from  last  exposure 
to  disease.  Very  contagious.  Dangerous  both  during  attack  and 
from  after  effects.  Peeling  may  last  six  or  eight  weeks.  Great 
variation  in  type  of  disease.  Many  slight  cases  not  recognized 
but  equally  infectious  with  serious  ones.  Milk  specially  apt  to 
convey  infection. 

Smallpox.  Sudden  onset  of  feverishness,  backache,  and  sick- 
ness. About  third  day  a  red  rash  of  shotlike  pimples,  felt  below 
the  skin  and  seen  first  about  the  face  and  wrists  ;  spots  develop  in 
three  days  and  then  form  little  blisters,  and  after  three  da)-s  more 
become  yellowish  and  filled  with  matter.  Scabs  then  form,  which 
fall  off  about  the  fourteenth  day.  Peculiarly  infectious,  especially 
by  any  portion  of  skin  or  scab.  Effectually  prevented  by  vaccina- 
tion. Exclude  until  complete  recovery  and  disinfection.  Exposed 
pupils  excluded  for  twenty-two  days  after  exposure  or  seven  days 
after  successful  vaccination. 

"Whooping  cough.  Begins  like  cold  in  head  with  bronchitis  and 
sore  throat  and  a  cough  which  is  worse  at  night.  "  V\' hooping  " 
develops  in  about  two  weeks.  Vomiting  after  paroxysm  of  cough- 
ing is  a  probable  symptom.  I^xclude  patient  one  week  after  last 
characteristic  cough  and  until  disinfection.  Exclude  exposed  pupils 
fourteen  days  if  no  cough  develops. 

Mumps.  Sickness,  fever,  and  pain  about  angle  of  jaw.  Glands 
become  swollen  and  tender,  jaws  stiff,  and  saliva  sticky.  Exclude 
for  two  weeks  and  until  after  disinfection.  Exclude  exposed  pupils 
from  fifteenth  to  twenty-second  day  after  last  exposure. 

Chickenpox.  Mild,  possibly  slight  fever,  rash  appears  on  second 
day  as  small  pimples,  which  in  about  a  day  becpme  filled  with  clear 
fluid.  Fluid  becomes  matter,  spot  dries,  and  crust  falls  off.  Suc- 
cessive crops  may  appear  until  tenth  day.    Exclude  until  all  scales 


92  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

are  shed,  spots  have  disappeared  and  person  is  disinfected  ;  at  least 
twelve  days.  Examine  head  for  spots.  FacIikIc  exposed  children 
twentv-two  days  after  exposure. 

Sore  throat  (acute,  septic  form).  Begins  with  sore  throat  and 
weakness.  Throat  diffusely  reddened  and  may  show  patches  like 
diphtheria.    Exclude  until  recovery. 

Disinfection  of  the  person  means  that  after  comi)lete  recovery 
the  child  shall  be  thoroughly  washed  with  soap  and  water,  teeth 
brushed,  mouth  rinsed,  throat  gargled,  and  nose  sprayed  and 
douched  with  an  antiseptic  solution  and  that  all  clothing  shall  be 
thoroughly  cleansed. 

All  these  diseases  arc  distributed  pritieipally  by  means 
of  moiitli  spray  emitted  in  eoit^^hiiio-  or  by  disehari:;es  from 
nose,  month,  or  ears. 

The  information  given  here  is  intended  only  as  first  aid 
to  teachers  who  are  compelled  to  rely  on  their  own  resources 
in  emergencies,  and  should  never  be  made  a  substitute  for 
competent  medical  advice  or  the  decision  of  health  authori- 
ties where  these  are  accessible.  The  statement  of  symptoms 
given  is  by  no  means  sufficient  to  determine  positively  the 
nature  of  the  diseases,  but  should  such  symptoms  be  found, 
the  teacher  should  jjromptly  segregate  the  case  until  expert 
authority  has  passed  upon  it. 

A  civic  lesson.  It  has  already  been  jjointed  out  that  in 
dealing  with  such  situations  one  has  a  supreme  opportunity 
for  teaching  not  only  the  immediate  lessons  of  hygiene 
and  sanitation  —  and  these  should  be  made  as  effective  as 
possible  by  means  of  the  object  lessons  so  unfortunately 
supplied  —  but  also  the  broader  les.sons  of  civic  virtue. 
An  invaluable  problem  for  discussion  is  that  of  the  right 
of  any  individual  to  attend  school  or  places  of  business 
and  amusement  at  the  risk  of  spreading  disease  to  others. 
Untold  sufferings  arise  from  the  lack  of  popular  sympathy 
with    quarantines,    fumigations,    and    sanitary    regulations. 


HEALTH   RESPONSIBH.ITY  OF  THE  SCHOOL     93 

The  worst  obstructions  to  efficiency  in  these  measures  are 
the  people  whom  they  are  intended  to  protect.  It  is  for  the 
teachers  of  the  land  to  make  the  next  generation  willing 
and  intelligent  cooperators  in  all  public  sanitary  measures. 

The  hope  of  human  progress.  Every  child  should  be 
made  keenly  conscious  that  diseases  of  the  human  body  can 
ordinarily  be  contracted  only  by  receiving  into  the  body 
germs  which  have  come,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  a 
diseased  human  body.  Skin  diseases  are  possible  only  from 
contact  with  a  diseased  skin  or  with  something  that  has 
been  in  such  contact.  Intestinal  disorders  occur  only  from 
germs  which  have  come  out  of  a  diseased  body  and  have 
entered  another  body,  usually  through  the  mouth.  Lung 
and  throat  troubles  must  enter  through  the  mouth  or  nose. 
However  many  the  media  of  transmission,  a  few  precautions 
will  provide  against  them  all.  If  the  skin  is  kept  clean,  if 
all  wounds  are  kept  disinfected  and  insect  bites  avoided, 
if  nothing  contaminated  enters  the  mouth  and  no  sprayed 
germs  are  drawn  in  with  the  breath,  there  could  be  no  con- 
tagion and  there  would  be  relatively  very  little  sickness. 
Even  these  simple  principles  may  be  summed  up  in  one, — 
cleanliness  of  the  person  and  of  that  which  is  taken  info  it. 
As  nearly  all  infections  are  taken  into  the  system  through 
the  mouth  or  through  wounds,  these  gatewa)'s  to  the  inner 
system  must  be  unceasingly  guarded  with  antiseptic  sentinels. 
To  Jnst  the  degree  in  which  univeisal  instruction  and  train- 
ing thi'ongh  the  pnblic  schools  makes  these  pjnnciples  of 
cleanliness  fnndainental  in  the  life  of  all  classes  of  people 
will  human  suffe7'i)ig  be  alleviated  atid  human  life  prolonged. 

If  only  they  are  used  with  sufficient  regularity  and  in 
sufficient  abundance.  Nature's  disinfectants  —  supplied  every- 
where without  cost  and  without  stint  —  are  the  safest,  surest, 
pleasantest,  and  most  completely  satisfactorv.  Fresh  air, 
sunshine,   pure  w^ater,  exercise,   rest ;  vigorous,   wholesome 


94  SCHOOL  EFFK'IKXCV 

living  in  school  and  out  ;  regular  habits,  personal  cleanliness, 
hard  work,  peace  of  mind,  and  good  cheer  —  these  are  the 
things  that  make  school  life  safe  and  sanitary,  hvgienic  and 
happy.  Unnatural  conditions  necessitate  chemical  disinfec- 
tants, and  while  good  school  management  must  take  cog- 
nizance of  such  artificial  protection,  its  ideal  is  always  to 
keep  as  far  from  the  need  of  them  as  possible. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Read  and  summarize  the  laws  or  regulations  regarding  the 
control  of  infectious  diseases  which  apply  to  the  schools  of  your 
community. 

2.  Make  actual  inspection  and  report  on  the  sanitary  condi- 
tions of  as  many  schools  as  practicable.  Indicate  which  of  the 
conditions  might  contribute  to  spread  of  disease.  Make  recom- 
mendations and  estimate  cost  of  remedying  these  conditions. 

3.  Prepare  an  outline  of  instructions  to  be  given  and  special 
rules  to  be  enforced  at  school  (i)  during  an  epidemic  of  grippe  or 
colds ;  (2)  in  case  diphtheria  should  be  discovered  among  the 
pupils. 

4.  Prepare  a  detailed  statement  as  to  the  means  of  disinfecting 
(i)  desks,  (2)  books,  and  (3)  room. 

5.  From  the  best  data  available  make  an  estimate  of  the  money 
loss  on  account  of  the  children  alone,  due  to  the  last  epidemic  in 
your  community.  Include  cost  of  time  and  of  schooling  wasted  ;  of 
medical  treatment.  Make  some  statement  of  the  inconvenience, 
anxiety,  and  suffering  caused.  Consider  also  the  incalculable  loss 
from  deaths.  Make  a  comparative  statement  of  the  probable  cost 
and  inconvenience  of  taking  steps  to  prevent  such  an  epidemic. 

READINGS 
See  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER   X 
HEALTH   INSPECTION  AND  SUPERVISION 

The  four  responsibilities.  Tn  pointing  out  in  earlier 
chapters  that  defective  Hghting,  ventilation,  heating,  seating, 
and  other  school  conditions  may  actually  produce  eye  defects, 
spinal  curvature,  and  nervous  disorders  and  increase  general 
susceptibility  to  colds,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  and  other 
physical  ills,  we  have  sought  to  establish  the  first  demand 
of  school  hygiene  ;  namely,  that  no  defect  or  disease  shall 
be  caused  by  the  school  or  by  its  rcquirevients. 

A  second  demand  has  been  the  burden  of  the  preceding 
chapter — that  no  disease  shall  be  covunnnicated  through  the 
agency  of  the  school. 

The  public  school's  responsibility,  however,  does  not  end 
with  these  negative  requirements.  It  is  also  demanded  that, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  presetice  of  disease  or  defect  shall  be 
detected  by  the  agency  of  the  school  and  parents  be  advised 
and  gnided  in  seciiring  remedial  tjratment.  This  problem 
is  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter,  but  we  may  add  here 
that  there  is  a  fourth  demand  ;  namely,  tJic  school  sJtall pjvvide 
as  a  part  of  its  cnrricnhnn  such  exercises  and  training  as 
shall  relieve,  so  far  as  possible,  existing  physical  defects 
among  tJie  pupils  and  develop  their  physical  capacities  to  the 
fullest.  The  discussion  of  this  fourth  demand  is  not  within 
the  scope  of  this  work. 

The  waste  from  physical  defects.  Even  though  the 
physical  defect  be  not  contagious,  it  reduces  the  learning 
power  and  permanent  efficiency  of  its  possessor.  The  school 
avoids  wasting  its  own  energies  and  the  state  protects  itself 

95 


96  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

against  the  burden  of  helpless  citizens  by  subjecting  all 
school  children  to  thorough  medical  examination  and  super- 
vision. The  principle  is  but  a  logical  extension  di"  the  whole 
principle  of  public  and  compulsory  education.  Both  com- 
pulsory education  and  compulsory  medical  inspection  are 
primarily  measures  of  economy  and  social  self-protection. 
Adenoids,  decayed  teeth,  troublesome  eyes,  or  other  easily 
remediable  defects  quite  commonly  mean  one  or  more  years 
of  retardation  for  the  sufferer,  luich  year  of  retardation 
means  the  loss  to  the  state  of  the  cost  of  educating  the 
child  for  the  year.  It  further  means  the  waste  due  to 
the  less  efficient  work  of  the  teacher  and  of  the  entire  class 
which  are  hampered  by  the  drag  of  the  deficient  pupil. 
Worst  of  all,  it  probably  means  the  waste  of  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  child's  efficiency  in  subsequent  years  during  and 
after  school  life.  Twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  learn- 
ing efficiency  of  a  child  may  be  lost  because  of  some  slight 
defect  of  which  he  and  his  parents  are  ignorant  but  which 
may  easily  be  detected  and  remedied  with  the  aid  of 
school  inspections. 

The  extent  of  these  nonepidemic  defects  among  the 
twenty  million  school  children  of  the  United  States  is  indi- 
cated by  the  following  summar\'  based  upon  the  results  of 
many  investigations  :  ^ 

Not  far  from  2,000,000  (10  per  cent)  are  suffering  from  a  grave 
form  of  malnutrition  ;  10,000,000  (50  per  cent)  have  enough  de- 
fective teeth  to  interfere  seriously  with  health;  at  least  2,000,000 
(10  per  cent)  suffer  from  obstructed  breathing  due  to  enlarged  ton- 
sils ;  probably  2,000,000  (10  per  cent)  have  enlarged  cervical  glands 
which  need  attention,  many  of  these  being  tuberculous ;  at  least 
10,000,000  (50  per  cent)  are,  or  have  been,  infected  with  tuber- 
culosis, of  whom  about  2,000,000  (10  per  cent)  will  later  succumb 
to  the  disease  ;  4,000,000  (20  per  cent)  have  defective  vision  ;  over 

^  Terman,  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  p.  8.  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


HEALTH   INSPECTION  AND   SUPERVISION       97 

1,000,000  (5  per  cent)  have  defective  hearing;  about  1,000,000 
(5  per  cent)  have  spinal  curvature  or  some  other  deformity  likely 
to  interfere  with  health;  not  far  from  500,000  (2^  per  cent) 
have  organic  heart  disease;  and  at  least  1,000,000  (5  per  cent) 
are  predisposed  to  some  form  of  serious  nervous  disorder. 

Medical  inspectors.  Medical  inspection  is  now  quite  gen- 
eral but  is  still  occasionally  provided  by  the  health  authori- 
ties, charitable  agencies,  or  individual  initiative.  It  should 
be  and  most  commonly  is  regarded  as  a  responsibility  of 
the  school  board  and  one  hardly  less  important  than  instruc- 
tion and  equipment.  Large  cities  should  undoubtedly  have 
specialists  in  this  particular  work  employed  on  full  time. 
Smaller  cities  should  have  competent  physicians  or  nurses 
to  devote  specified  time  to  this  duty.  A  few  rural  counties 
have  led  the  way  in  the  employment  of  experienced  experts 
to  have  entire  charge  of  the  inspection  and  supervision  of 
the  sanitary  condition  of  the  schools  and  physical  condition 
of  the  pupils.  Where  even  a  part  of  the  time  of  an  expert 
cannot  be  regularly  employed,  there  can  usually  be  found  a 
public-spirited  physician  or  one  who  desires  to  extend  his 
practice  who  will  make  at  least  one  routine  inspection  annu- 
ally without  any  charge  whatever.  Such  enlightened  self- 
sacrifice  usually  profits  a  physician  far  more  than  it  costs  him. 

Dental  inspection.  Dental  inspection  is  commonly  and 
properly  made  quite  distinct  from  the  general  medical  in- 
spection. In  smaller  communities  local  dentists  are  fre- 
quently willing  to  make  necessary  dental  inspections  and 
reports  free  of  all  charge.  It  is  dignified  and  professional, 
but  none  the  less  effective,  advertising.  One  hundred  and 
nine  cities  of  the  United  States  had  regular  dental  clinics, 
free  at  least  to  those  unable  to  pay,  in  the  year  1914.  Most 
conspicuous  among  these  is  the  two  million  dollar  I-"orsyth 
Dental  Infirmary  for  Children  presented  to  the  city  of 
Boston.     A    rapidly    growing    appreciation    of   the    serious 


98  SCHOOL    KFKICIKNCV 

effects  of  bad  teeth  upon  general  health  and  efficiency 
should  prompt  every  community  to  provide  some  adequate 
treatment  for  those  too  iX)or  to  provide  for  themselves. 
Such  care  may  well  be  classed  in  the  category  of  educa- 
tional necessities  which  are  the  right  of  every  child  along 
with  free  instruction  and  free  books. 

Dr.  William  H.  I'otter  thus  summarizes  the  school's 
responsibility  with  reference  to  children's  teeth  :  ^ 

1.  In  all  public  schools  there  sliould  be  careful  instruction  given 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  teeth  ;  their  uses  ;  the  diseases  which  attack 
them  ;  and  the  methods  for  preventing  or  diminishing  these  dis- 
eases. Children  and  tlieir  parents  should  be  taught  that  the  clean- 
ing of  the  teeth  and  their  thorough  use  upon  hard  foods  will  much 
reduce  and  perhaps  pre\ent  deca}-.  School  teachers  must  assume 
an  oversight  in  regard  to  their  pupils'  teeth. 

2.  Examinations  of  the  teeth  on  all  sehool  chiklren  should  be 
made  at  least  twiee  a  year. 

3.  Establish  in  school  buildings  school  dental  clinics  in  charge 
of  dentists  paid  by  the  municipality.  Add  the  services  of  a  dental 
nurse,  if  the  law  makes  them  possible.  These  school  clinics  are  to 
serve  only  those  unable  to  eonsult  a  jM'ivate  dentist.  .\  small  fee 
should  be  charged  in  every  case  if  possible. 

4.  Begin  work  upon  school  children  before  serious  decay  has 
occurred  in  their  permanent  teeth,  and  continue  the  supervision 
and  necessary  repair  work  through  the  twelfth  year. 

Examination  by  specialists.  Specialists  in  the  eye,  ear, 
nose,  and  throat  likewise  serve  themselves  as  well  as  the  com- 
munity when  they  accept  an  invitation  to  make  free  inspec- 
tion at  least  of  such  children  as  may  be  specially  referred  to 
them  by  the  medical  inspector  or  the  teacher.  In  one  town, 
where  adenoids  were  particularly  prevalent,  such  an  inspec- 
tion was  made  by  a  specialist  from  a  neighboring  city  with 
the  result  that  a  series  of  "adenoid  parties"  were  held.    The 

'  rnited  States  Huicaii  of  I'.ducation  Kiilletiu  Xo.  /S,  1913. 


HEALTH   INSPECTION  AND   SUPERVISION       99 

specialist  made  a  low  rate  for  the  operation  and  funds  were 
raised  by  subscription  for  the  few  who  could  not  afford  to  pay. 
Reliable  opticians  who  advertise  free  examination  can  readily 
be  persuaded  to  make  their  examinations  at  the  school. 

School  nurses.  The  utilizing"  of  volunteer  or  part-time 
inspectors,  however,  has  certain  disadvantages  and  is  prob- 
ably not  as  effective  as  the  regular  employment  of  a  full- 
time  nurse.  Medical  Director  Foster  of  Oakland,  California, 
has  this  to  say  in  the  way  of  comparison  :  ^ 

When  the  mooted  question  of  doctors  on  part  time  or  nurses  on 
full  time  came  up,  1  favored  the  latter  to  do  the  routine  work,  but 
under  strict  medical  supervision,  and  six  years"  experience  with 
nurse  help  has  strongly  convinced  me  that  we  made  no  mistake. 
It  is  a  matter  of  true  economy,  for  the  nurse's  full  time  can  be 
had  for  the  same  pay  as  the  doctor's  two  or  three  hours.  They 
will  do,  hour  for  hour,  as  much  work  and  do  the  required  work 
equally  well.  They  are  patient,  painstaking,  and  persistent.  They 
do  not  stir  up  antagonisms  and  jealousies  as  does  the  average 
doctor,  for  he  will  be  accused,  even  if  unjustly,  of  working  for  his 
own  betterment.  .  .  .  The  nurse  will  meet  resistance  and  abuse 
with  more  tact  and  will  overcome  objections  where  the  ordinary 
doctor  will  fail.  The  objection  that  the  nurse  cannot  properly 
diagnose  has  no  force.  She  can  tell  a  decayed  tooth  or  enlarged 
tonsil,  defective  vision  or  granulated  lids.  She  may  not  be  able  to 
tell  the  exact  defect  of  vision  ;  neither  can  many  doctors.  What 
should  be  done  with  certain  diseased  conditions,  she  may  not 
know ;  any  half  dozen  doctors,  taken  at  random,  might  have  that 
number  of  different  opinions.  \\'hat  is  required  is  to  find  the 
defect,  if  it  exists,  and  refer  it  to  the  family  doctor  or  specialist 
for  a  definite  diagnosis  and  treatment,  then  follow  up  the  case 
and  see  that  the  work  is  done. 

The  school  nurse  is  probably  the  best  solution  of  the 
problem  of  physical  inspection  and  supervision.    She  is  on 

^  Proceedings  of  Eighth  Congress  of  American  School  Hygiene  Association, 
p.  26. 


lOO  SCHOOL   KFI'ICIENCY 

duty  constantly  or  makes  daily  visits  according  to  the  size 
of  the  school.  She  is  provided  with  clinic  thermometer, 
simple  remedies,  and  first-aid  equipment  and  should  have 
a  cot  ready  in  a  quiet  room  for  the  occasional  emergency. 
To  her  the  teachers  refer  every  case  of  indisposition.  She 
should  be  competent  to  determine  between  the  real  and  the 
imagined  or  pretended.  She  should  attend  to  the  injuries 
and  slight  ailments  incident  to  a  large  group  of  children. 
More  serious  cases  she  refers  promptly  to  parents  or  physi- 
cians. She  should  be  particularly  trained  to  recognize  the 
first  symptoms  of  contagious  diseases.  She  should  make  sys- 
tematic medical  inspections  including  eye  and  ear  tests.  She 
should  visit  the  classrooms  and  have  an  especial  care  for 
hygienic  and  sanitary  conditions.  She  should  have  an  over- 
sight of  the  defective,  feeble,  or  nervous  children  at  their 
work  and  see  that  their  special  needs  are  provided  for.  She 
should  have  general  inspectorial  and  supervisory  authority  in 
all  matters  of  hygiene  and  sanitation  regarding  the  school 
and  maintain  the  standards  of  school  housekeeping.  She 
should  visit  the  homes  and  advise  with  parents  regarding 
any  questions  of  the  children's  physical  welfare  —  medical 
treatment,  food,  exercise,  sleep,  light  for  study,  or  cleanliness. 
She  should  hold  mothers'  meetings  and  should  follow  up  all 
recommendations  made  in  the  physical  inspections. 

Teacher  as  medical  inspector.  But  where  neither  nurse 
nor  other  medical  inspector  is  provided,  and  this  still  in- 
cludes a  large  proportion  of  tjie  children  of  America,  it  is 
incumbent  upon  the  teacher  to  perfomi  as  many  of  their 
functions  as  possible.  Any  teacher  may  easily  familiarize 
himself  with  the  symptoms  of  such  common  affections  as 
adenoids,  enlarged  tonsils,  anaemia,  hookworm,  nervous  dis- 
orders, and  troubles  of  the  eye,  ear,  or  throat.  It  does  not  re- 
quire experience  or  expert  knowledge  to  select  those  children 
who  should  be  recommended  for  expert  examination. 


HEALTH   INSPECTION  AND   SUPERVISION      lOl 

Eye  tests.  One  can  quickly  learn  to  use  the  Snellen 
Test  Cards  for  defective  vision.  These  are  usually  supplied 
to  schools  without  cost  by  the  local  or  state  health  authori- 
ties, or  they  may  be  purchased  for  a  few  cents.  Simple 
directions  come  with  the  cards.  It  may  be  well  to  say  that 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  having  the  children  become 
familiar  with  the  cards  beforehand  or  while  others  are  being 
tested,  in  which  case  memory  instead  of  vision  might  be 
tested.  It  is  necessary  also  to  avoid  pressure  on  the  ball  of 
one  eye  by  holding  the  hand  against  it  while  the  other  is 
being  tested  ;  also  to  keep  the  cards  clean  and  bright  and 
to  have  the  light  shine  squarely  upon  the  card  and  not  into 
the  eyes  during  the  test.  Carelessness  in  these  simple 
details  sometimes  begets  confusing  results  and  destroys 
confidence  in  the  tests. 

Hearing  tests.  The  simpler  hearing  tests  are  so  affected 
by  varying  conditions  that  they  are  not  satisfactory  for 
school  use.  The  "whisper  test"  may  be  useful  after  con- 
siderable practice.  The  audiometer  is  too  elaborate  an 
instrument  to  be  used  except  for  very  thoroughgoing 
examinations.  The  best  practical  test  is  a  teacher  suffi- 
ciently sympathetic  to  recognize  the  difference  between 
deafness  and  dullness.  If,  while  the  children  are  attentive 
to  their  studies,  something  is  said  to  a  child  in  a  low  tone 
which  those  sitting  near  him  hear  and  he  does  not,  there 
is  some  indication  that  his  hearing  is  defective.  Repeated 
tests  of  this  kind  would  be  fairly  conclusive,  allowance  being 
made  for  the  possibility  that  greater  concentration  on  the 
study  accounts  for  the  results.  Deafness  of  one  ear  is 
readily   tested   bv  closing  the  other. 

Health  records.  Whoever  makes  the  medical  inspection, 
a  complete  card-index  record  should  be  kept  of  the  physical 
history  of  ever\'  child.  Compact  forms  for  these  records  have 
been   prepared  by  various  health  authorities,  are  published 


I02  SCHOOL   Kll'lCIKNCY 

in  the  several  works  on  medical  inspection  of  schools,  and 
have  to  some  extent  been  standardized  and  put  on  the 
market  by  dealers.  The  forms  provide  for  a  full  inspection 
record,  attendance  summary,  vital  statistics,  and  health  record 
for  the  entire  school  life  of  the  child. 

Reports.  A  report  of  the  findings  should  be  sent  to  the 
parents  at  any  time  that  it  is  believed  further  medical  exam- 
ination or  treatment  may  be  necessary.  Caution  is  necessary, 
however,  to  avoid  hasty  and  unreliable  reports.  Parents 
should  not  be  unduly  alarmed  or  antagonized.  A  teacher 
inexperienced  in  diagnosis  and  looking  for  symptoms  will 
probably  find  enough  of  them  to  arouse  a  panic  if  parents 
take  the  reports  seriously.  Even  expert  inspections  have 
frecjuently  proved  hopelessly  unreliable  and  contradictory 
when  followed  up.  Inspections,  certainly  those  by  teachers, 
may  best  be  confined  to  the  more  evident  defects  or  those 
which  affect  school  progress  directly  and  should  be  several 
times  repeated  lest  parents  be  disturbed  by  unfounded 
guesses  and  the  inspecting  be  brought  into  contempt.  A 
printed  form  is  a  rather  unsympathetic  means  of  telling  a 
parent  that  his  child  is  suffering  from  a  defect  or  disease. 
Any  case  of  the  kind  is  worthy  of  a  sympathetic,  interested 
personal  note  from  the  teacher  or  nurse.  I'.ven  then  igno- 
rant parents  and  those  unaccustomed  to  such  oversight  of 
their  children  are  likely  to  be  alarmed  or  offended.  To 
accomplish  any  actual  results  in  the  j:)hysical  improvement 
of  the  children,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  sympathetic  touch 
with  the  parents  and  to  follow  up  the  recommendations  with 
inquiries  and  probably  personal  visits  and  consultations. 

Special  consideration  of  defectives.  Special  consideration 
should  always  be  extended  to  the  child  afflicted  with  any 
defect,  yet  the  truly  considerate  teacher  will  avoid  calling 
attention  to  it  or  making  the  unfortunate  om-  more  con- 
scious   of    his    trouble    ihan    necessary.     'i"hc   sufferer   from 


HEALTH    INSPEC'llUN  AND   SUPERVISION      103 

weak  vision  will  be  seated  in  the  best  light.  The  one  hard 
of  hearing  will  be  seated  near  the  teacher,  and  it  is  an  act 
of  kindness  to  him  n<jt  to  speak  very  loud  when  addressing 
him  but  to  look  directly  at  him  and  to  articulate  distinctly. 
Any  partially  deaf  person  will  bear  witness  that  being 
shouted  at  is  painfull)-  embarrassing  and  is  little  or  no  aid  to 
hearing.  The  nervous  child  should  by  all  means  be  allowed 
frequent  opportunity  for  change  of  position  and  of  occupa- 
tion. The  frail  ones  should  be  given  lighter  tasks,  shorter 
hours,  and  occasional  complete  rest.  Cushions,  foot-rests, 
and  other  means  of  relieving  physical  strain  should  not  be 
denied  to  any  child  who  does  not  abuse  the  privilege  of 
using  them.  They  may  well  be  as  large  a  factor  in  re- 
lieving fatigue  and  increasing  efficiency  for  a  frail  child 
subjected  to  the  harsh  conditions  of  school  as  for  his 
parents  in  the   home   or   in   the   office. 

Instruction  the  higher  purpose.  However  effective  the 
inspection  and  reporting,  however  close  the  touch  with 
parents,  and  however  thorough  the  follow-up,  the  large 
opportunity  for  the  teacher  is  in  making  use  of  these  occa- 
sions for  effective  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene. 
The  golden  time  for  instruction  in  oral  hygiene  is  when 
a  dental  inspection  has  brought  home  to  every  child  the 
need  for  constant  care  of  the  teeth.  Instruction  in  the  care 
of  the  eyes  can  never  be  so  effective  as  when  some  of  the 
class  have  just  been  referred  to  an  oculist  for  treatment. 
Private  conferences  and  advice  to  individuals  mav  well 
supplement  such  of  the  opportune  instruction  as  would  be 
permissible  with  the  whole  class.  The  occasion  mav  be 
suitable  for  certain  instruction  in  sexual  jjroblems  to  the 
boys  and  girls  separatel}-. 

The  following,  taken  from  the  source  quoted  above  in 
regard  to  school  nurses,  is  an  effective  statement  of  this 
important  matter  : 


I04  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

The  personality  of  the  workers  is  of  utmost  importance.  It 
may  be  needless  to  say  that  the)-  must  be  deepl\'  interested  in 
their  work  and  imbued  with  a  true  missionary  spirit.  'I'he)-  must 
love  children  and  be  diplomatic,  patient,  tactful,  and  persistent. 
They  cannot  attain  the  best  success  if  their  aim  is  merely  to  build 
up  statistics  of  examinations  made  or  operations  performed.  The 
removal  of  defects  is  one  object  and  the  one  visible  to  the  general 
public,  but  it  is  subordinate  to  the  educational.  I  do  not  underrate 
repair  work,  but  it  is  a  means  to  the  end.  K\ery  successful  opera- 
tion is  an  object  lesson  to  all  who  know  the  child,  but  could  we 
remove  all  defects  by  the  turning  of  the  hand  the  next  generation 
would  be  as  bad.  'I'he  real  problem  is  pre\enlion.  The  curing  of 
defects  without  showing  the  way  of  prevention  is  like  bailing  a 
leaky  boat,  a  never-ending  task. 

Competition  in  health  training.  The  following  from  the 
Peninsula  School  Fair  Catalogue  (Williamsburg,  Virginia) 
indicates  one  means  of  keeping  health  instruction  vividly 
before  the  children  and  fixing  instruction  into  habit.  This 
also  secures  much  valuable  data  which  could  hardly  be 
secured  or  tabulated  otherwise. 

School  contest  in  composition.  Three  prizes  of  five  dollars  each 
will  be  awarded,  one  to  the  school  of  each  class  exhibiting  the 
best  series  of  papers  on  "  Malaria  "  bound  together  as  a  connected 
book  on  the  subject. 

This  should  be  the  work  of  as  many  pupils  of  the  school  as 
practicable  working  in  groups  or  individually.  Assistance  should 
be  drawn  from  every  source  possible  except  in  the  actual  com- 
posing and  preparing  of  the  papers  and  book,  which  must  be 
done  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

The  following  topics  are  suggested  for  the  several  papers  of 
the  book  :  History  of  Malaria ;  Its  Cost  in  Time,  Money,  Energy, 
and  Life;  Nature  and  Treatment  of  the  Disease;  Cause  of 
Malaria ;  Life  History'  of  the  Malaria  Mo.squito ;  Prevention  and 
Final  Eradication;  Community  Survey  of  Malaria  Cases,  of  Breed- 
ing Places  for  Mosquitoes,  and  of  efforts,  especially  of  the  school 
itself,  to  prevent  malaria. 


HEALTH   INSPECTION  AND  SUPERVISION     105 

Health  and  attendance  contest.  A  prize  of  ten  dollars  will  be 
awarded  to  the  ungraded  school  or  to  the  room  in  a  graded  school 
making  the  best  record  and  report  of  health  and  attendance  for 
one  hundred  and  twenty  school  days,  frorn  about  October  i  to 
about  April  2,  on  the  following  plan  : 

The  pupils  of  any  room  entering  this  contest  shall  each  month  or 
oftener  elect  one  or  more  of  their  number  to  keep  faithfully  the  re- 
quired record  ever)*  day.  The  record  should  be  made  in  the  morning 
and  corrected  for  the  day  in  the  afternoon.  Absences  for  unknown 
cause  must  be  inquired  into  and  recorded  accurately  as  soon  as 
possible.    No  guess  or  hearsay  is  permissible  in  this  record. 

When  the  actual  count  for  the  120  successive  school  days  is 
ready,  the  report  is  to  be  carefully  made  out  as  follows : 

1.  Show  the  totals  recorded  under  each  head  given  below  for 
the  whole  time. 

2.  Multiply  each  total  by  the  penalty  number  shown  in  paren- 
thesis after  that  head. 

3.  Find  the  sum  of  all  these  products. 

4.  Divide  this  sum  by  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled. 

5.  This  quotient  is  the  "  health-attendance  index,"  and  the 
room  making  the  lowest  inde.x  number  on  an  approved  report 
will  be  awarded  the  prize  in  this  contest. 

Items  to  he  Recokhed 

1.  Number  of  pupils  sitting  in  wet  shoes (5) 

2.  Number  not  having  or  not  using  handkerchief  when  needed    .  (3) 

3.  Number  failing  to  brush  teeth  before  coming  to  school  •      •      ■  (3) 

4.  Number  having  toothache (3) 

5.  Number  having  headache (4) 

6.  Number  having  cough  or  cold  in  the  head (4) 

7.  Number  regularly  breathing  through   mouth  (usually  means 

adenoids) (2) 

8.  Number  having  sore  throat (4) 

9.  Number  with  sores  or  eruptions  on  face  or  hands.    (Do  not 

count  cuts  or  bruises  unless  they  are  infected  and  become 

running  sores) (4) 

10.  Number  present  and  ill  otherwise  than  as  above (3) 

11.  Number  absent  because  ill  with  diphtheria (5) 


io6  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

1 2.  Number  absent  because  ill  with  scarlet  fever (5) 

13.  Number  absent  because  ill  with  whooping  cough (5) 

14.  Number  absent  because  ill  with  mumps  .  • (5) 

15.  Number  absent  because  ill  with  any  other  contagious  disease  .  (4) 

16.  Number  absent  because  ill  with  typhoid  fever (5) 

1 7.  Number  absent  because  ill  with  malarial  fever (4) 

18.  Number  absent  because  ill  with  any  other  disease  or  illness     .  (4) 

19.  Number  absent  because  quarantined  to  protect  school     .     .     .  (i) 

20.  Number  absent  because  of  fear  of  contagion  at  school    ...  (5) 

21.  Number  absent  because  needed  to  help  at  home (1) 

22.  Number  absent  because  of  any  other  important  reason   ...  (2) 

23.  Number  absent  because  of  lack  of  interest,  misconduct,  or 

trivial  reason  not  approved  by  teacher (5) 

The  teacher  must  certify  that  the  record  has  been  faithfully  and 
accurately  kept  by  the  pupils.  The  superintendent  will  check  up 
these  reports  as  far  as  practicable  and  throw  out  any  which  are 
found  to  be  unreliable. 

The  health  ideal.  At  all  times  let  us  bear  in  mind  that 
the  school's  responsibility  and  interest  is  for  health,  not  dis- 
ease ;  that  we  have  health  inspections,  not  disease  inspec- 
tions ;  that  instruction  should  be  of  health  and  cleanliness, 
not  of  sickness  and  dirt.  People  who  exercise,  energize, 
and  Fletcherize  ;  who  love  fresh  air,  sunshine,  and  cleanli- 
ness ;  who  are  cheerful,  careful,  and  bus)-,  —  such  people 
are  healthy,  happy,  and  hearty.  These  are  the  thoughts  to 
keep  before  the  pupils.  Dwelling  on  the  unwholesome  tends 
to  make  children  morbid.  Rather  keep  them  thinking  of  the 
joys  of  being  sound,  the  glorious  luxury  of  keeping  clean, 
the  fun  of  being  vigorous  and  energetic,  and  you  contribute 
most  effectively  to  making  them  so.  There  is  every  reason 
why  school  life  should  be  the  most  wholesome  life  for  teacher 
and  pupil,  why  .school  should  be  the  safest  and  happiest  place 
for  all  to  be,  why  eyes  and  lungs  and  nerves  and  backs  and 
digestions  and  tempers  should  be  better  there  than  anywhere 
else.    Let  us  keep  our  minds  on  this  ideal  and  make  it  true. 


HEAL'IH    INSPECTION   AND   SUPERVISION      107 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Counting  the  average  cost  of  a  year's  schooling  at  $30 
per  child  and  the  loss  of  efficiency  due  to  any  one  of  the  defects 
mentioned  in  the  estimate  quoted  from  Terman  at  ten  per  cent, 
how  much  of  the  money  spent  for  schools  in  the  United  States 
is  wasted  because  of  these  defects  ? 

2.  Supposing  health  supervision  would  save  fifty  per  cent  of 
the  loss  in  school  work  due  to  these  causes,  how  much  would  the 
schools  be  justified  in  expending  for  the  supervision  on  the  ground 
of  economy  alone  ? 

3.  If  the  medical  inspection  and  supervision  of  your  schools  is 
not  already  adequate,  make  plans  and  estimate  costs  of  making 
it  so. 

4.  Compare  several  forms  of  medical  inspection  record  cards 
and  prepare  a  form  which  you  think  includes  the  best  features  of 
them  all. 

5.  After  preparing  yourself  carefully  for  the  task,  it  would  be 
well  to  make  a  few  practice  examinations  of  the  eyes,  ears,  and 
general  physical  conditions  among  your  pupils  or  fellow  students. 
If  possible,  compare  your  results  with  the  ofiicial  medical  inspec- 
tion records  for  the  same  persons. 

6.  If  a  nurse  is  not  alreadv  provided,  make  practicable  plans 
for  the  cmplo\menl  and  for  the  duties  of  a  school  nurse  for  vour 
school. 

7.  With  the  aid  of  necessary  works  on  physiology  and  medical 
inspection,  prepare  a  list  of  the  most  common  physical  defects 
among  school  children  and  the  symptoms  of  each. 

READINGS 

•^Allen.    Civics  and  Health. 

•'AvRES.    Health  Work  in  tlic  Public  Schools. 

Burks.    Health  and  the  School. 

BURGER.STEIN.    School  Hygiene.  Parts  11  and  III. 

Cornell.    Health  and  Medical  Inspection  of  School  Children. 

CUBBERLY.    Public  School  Administration,  chap.  xx. 

DuESSLAR.    School  Hygiene,  chaps.  xx-x.\iii. 


io8  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Eggleston  and  BRukui:.    The  Work  of  the  Rural  School,  chap.  iii. 
GULICK  and  AvKl-:s.    The  Medical  Inspection  ot  Schools. 
^HoAG.    The  Health  Index  of  Children. 
•HoAG  and  Tkk.m.w.    Health  Work  in  the  Schools. 
KiRKi'ATRiCK.    Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  chap.  xvii. 
Rapp:er.    Educational  Hygiene. 
RowE.    Physical  Nature  of  the  Child,  chap.  xiii. 
Shaw.    School  Hygiene,  chaps,  xi-xii. 
Tanner.    The  Child,  chap.  iii. 
>^ER.MAX.    The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child. 
W.-\rni:r.    The  Study  of  Children,  chap.  xii. 
Bulletins,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 

Bulletin  No.  i6,   191 3,  "Bibliography  of  Medical  Inspection   and 

Health  Supervision." 
Bitlletiii  A'o.  18,  1 91 3,  "The   Fifteenth  International  Congress  on 

Hygiene  and  Demography''  (Dresslar). 
Bulletin   No.   44.,    191 3,    "Organized    Health    Work    in    Schools" 

(Hoag). 
Bulletin  No.  48,  191 3.  "School  Hygiene"  (Ryan). 
Bulletin  N^o. ^2,  19 13,  "  Sanitary  S(^hoolhouses.    Legal  Requirements 

in  Indiana  and  Ohio." 
Bulletin  No.  10,    191 4,   "Physical   (Growth   and  .School    Progress" 

(Baldwin). 
Bulletin  No.  ij,  191 4,  ".Sanitary  .Survey  of  the  Schools  of  Orange 

County,  Va.''  (Flannagan). 
Bulletin  N'o.  20,   191 4,  "The   Rural   School   and    Hookworm    Dis- 
ease" (Ferrell). 
Bulletin  A'o.  40,    191 4,   "Care  of  the   Health  of  Boys   in   Cirard 

College." 
Bulletin  A'o.  4,  1915,  "The  Health  of  School  Children  "  (Heck). 
Bulletin  N^o.  21,  1915,  "  Schoolhouse  Sanitation  "  (Cook). 
Bulletin  No.  jo,  191  5,  "  Health  of  School  Children^  II  "  (Heck). 
Public-Health  Bulletin,  (lovernment  Printing  Office 
Bulletin  A'o.  //,  "  Rural  School  Sanitation."' 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

Early  courses.  As  early  as  1528  the  Electorate  of  Saxony 
had  adopted  a  graded  plan  of  studies  prepared  by  Melanch- 
thon,  Luther's  learned  associate,  for  a  uniform  state  system 
of  schools.  It  provided  for  three  grades  of  uncertain  length 
as  to  time  but  of  extensive  content.  For  example,  the  first 
grade  or  class  was  taught  reading  and  writing  (of  Latin)  from 
a  primer  prepared  by  Melanchthon  himself,  the  Creed,  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  the  Commandments,  and  several  prescribed 
classical  selections.  From  this  plan  the  national  school 
system  idea  of  modern  times  has  grown. 

In  1  599  the  Jesuits  adopted  their  famous  Ratio  Stiidionini, 
the  finished  product  of  sixty  years  of  experience  and  critical 
study  of  their  plans  of  education.  With  a  single  revision  in 
1832,  it  has  been  followed  continuously  in  their  schools.  In 
it  the  studies  and  daily  routine  of  life  of  pupils  and  teachers 
are  detailed  at  length. 

State  and  city  tendencies.  Almost  every  theorist  and 
organizer  of  schools  has  outlined  in  some  form  his  concep- 
tion of  the  selection  of  human  wisdom  that  should  be  taught 
to  the  rising  generation.  With  the  development  of  state 
and  national  systems  of  schools  these  selected  courses  have 
taken  on  an  official  character  and  have  tended  to  become 
formal  and  prescriptive.  The  democratic  origin  of  the 
American  state  systems  has  prevented  a  high  degree  of 
centralization,  and  we  find  the  various  state  departments 
of  education  pui:)lishing  courses  of  studv  ranging  all  the 
way   from   the   barest  statements  of  subjects  to  be  taught 

109 


no  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

or  texts  required  to  be  used,  to  quite  valuable  manuals  of 
elementary  methods.  The  lack  of  any  highly  centralized 
organization  or  sufficient  corps  of  inspectors  to  enforce  a 
detailed  course  of  study,  such  as  are  found  in  PVance  and 
Germany,  has  caused  our  state  courses  to  be  suggestive 
rather  than  prescriptive.  The  dty  systems,  however,  hav- 
ing usually  a  close-knit  and  competent  organization,  have 
frequently  run  to  the  extremes  of  prescribed  detail.  .The 
common  criticism  has  been  that  they  have  destroyed  the 
initiative  and  dampened  the  spontaneity  and  enthusiasm  of 
teachers.  Too  much  ]:)rescription  has  been  usual  in  the 
cities,  where  teachers  are  better  paid  and  able  to  act  inde- 
pendently, and  little  or  no  guidance  in  the  country,  where 
salaries  are  low  and  teachers  are  inexperienced. 

In  form,  the  course  of  study  is  essentially  a  statement 
of  the  work  to  be  covered  by  the  school.  It  is  usually 
divided  to  show  the  assignment  for  each  term,  occasion- 
ally for  each  month  or  week,  and,  in  extreme  cases,  it 
dictates  the  material  for  each  lesson.  It  is  said  that  a 
French  National  Minister  of  I-Lducation  once  boasted  that 
he  could  look  at  his  watch  and  tell  exactly  what  ever}-  child 
in  the  public  schools  of  France  was  doing  at  the  moment. 

Types  of  courses.  The  traditional  mechanical  course 
makes  its  assignments  in  terms  of  "  page  limits  "  in  the 
prescribed  textbooks  in  each  subject.  Such  an  outline  has 
no  value  except  to  count  time  for  the  "  lock  step "  into 
which  it  is  intended  to  force  the  progress  of  the  ])upil. 
A  common  result  is  to  ha\e  the  pupils  marking  time  some 
days  and  crowding  over  longer  assignments  than  they  can 
possibly  digest  at  others.  "  W'c  have  to  get  over  the  ground  " 
is  perhaps  the  commonest  excuse  for  all  tlu-  sins  of  ineffi- 
cient teachers ;  as  though  covering  ground  were  in  any 
sense  a  function  of  the  school.  ]3etter  courses  are  out- 
lined in  topics,  with  or  without  page  references  to  specific 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  i  1 1 

texts.  Hut  these  also  do  little  more  than  to  indicate  the 
ground  to  be  covered  or,  at  least,  are  so  interpreted  by  the 
teachers.  As  the  ground  or  scope  of  subject  matter  to  be 
covered  is  taken  from  the  experience  of  the  best  teachers 
and  schools,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  it  is  always 
a  little  more  than  the  average  teacher  and  school  can  do 
well.  The  effect  almost  universally  is  that  the  course  of 
study  is  an  excuse  for  wasteful  haste. 

Still  other  courses  prescribe  in  more  or  less  detail  the 
methods  to  be  used  in  teaching  the  several  topics.  These 
commonly  reflect  the  bias  or  hobby  of  the  course-maker. 
The  weaker  teachers  direct  their  efforts  and  professional 
development  toward  attaining  the  idiosyncrasies  of  the  out- 
line. The  stronger  ones  are  hampered  in  their  initiative 
by  the  feeling  that  they  will  be  judged  by  their  approxima- 
tion to  the  directions  given  rather  than  by  their  efficiency  in 
child  development. 

The  time-limit  fallacy.  Much  work  has  been  done  in  the 
way  of  investigating  how  much  time  or  what  proportion  of 
the  time  in  various  schools  is  devoted  to  each  of  the  studies. 
The  function  of  such  data  is  to  indicate  what  has  been  done, 
not  what  ought  to  be.  The  conclusions  from  such  studies 
would  tend  to  show  that  the  time  /actor  has  little  or  nothing 
to  do  with  the  results  attained.  In  fact,  the  best  educative 
results  are  attained,  if  conditions  of  organization  permit, 
when  the  divisions  of  the  pupils'  work  into  subjects  is  largely 
lost  in  the  correlations  and  concentrations  of  better  teaching. 
What  could  be  of  less  concern  in  a  course  of  study  than  the 
question  of  how  much  time  dailv  or  weekly  shall  be  given 
to  the  recitation  of  any  particular  subject  ?  l^ven  the  most 
stupid  supervision  of  factory  hands  would  recognize  that  one 
should  continue  at  a  particular  task  until  it  is  done  and  that 
one  should  not  keep  on  doing  it  after  it  is  done.  In  the 
nature  of  things  different   jni])ils  do  not   rccjuirr  {he  same 


112  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

amount  of  time  to  do  the  same  task,  much  less  do  they  need 
the  same  time  at  a  given  sort  of  exercise  to  secure  the  same 
developmental  results. 

In  any  grade  the  pupils  should  practice  writing  in  propor- 
tion to  their  need  for  that  training.  When  one  has  attained 
a  certain  proficiency  as  a  penman  the  work  is  done,  and  he 
no  longer  has  any  business  in  a  writing  class.  When  one 
has  got  from  his  arithmetic  study  the  abilities  for  which  it 
was  intended,  why  should  he  continue  at  it  ?  'I'o  set  five 
hours  a  week  for  a  pupil  to  do  what  he  can  do  in  three  is 
only  a  little  worse  than  limiting  another  of  less  ability  to  five 
hours  to  do  that  which  will  require  him  eight.  Obviously  it 
should  not  be  a  function  of  the  course  of  study  to  prescribe 
the  time  to  be  devoted  to  study  tasks. 

Shifting  bases  of  course  of  study.  Any  course  of  study  is 
a  selection  from  the  whole  inheritance  of  human  achieve- 
ment, chosen  and  arranged  by  the  authorities  according  to 
supposed  values  and  adaptability  for  preparing  the  child  for 
life.  Few  authorities,  however,  have  a  suf^cient  mastery 
of  that  human  achievement  to  enable  them  to  choose  unerr- 
ingly, and  they  are  b)-  no  means  agreed  on  the  basis  of  selec- 
tion or  the  grounds  of  adaptability.  Wherefore  mere  tradition 
has  usually  been  the  dojninant  factor  in  determining  the 
content  of  our  courses  of  study.  If  the  ideal  course  were 
some  definite  thing,  we  might  ultimately  attain  it  by  a  con- 
servative evolution,  but  the  choice  of  a  course  rests  directly 
upon  four  fundamental  bases,  each  of  which  is  itself  a 
changing  one  : 

(i)  Changing  knowledge  of  the  child's  nature  and  capaci- 
ties ;  (2)  changing  knowledge  of  the  effects  which  different 
activities  and  studies  have  upon  that  nature  and  those  capaci- 
ties ;  (3)  a  swiftly  changing  body  of  human  knowledge  and 
experience  available  for  educative  purposes ;  (4)  changing 
ideals  of  what  constitutes  a  well-educated   man. 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  113 

In  each  of  these  respects  the  changes  have  been  so  decided 
within  the  past  few  years  that  no  merely  traditional  cur- 
riculum can  be  justified.  National  and  community  ideals, 
prospective  occupations  of  the  majority  of  the  pupils,  the 
teaching  force,  the  equipment  and  length  of  term,  are  some 
of  the  other  factors  which  necessitate  changes  in  curriculum 
from  place  to  place,  as  well  as  from  time  to  time. 

True  functions  of  the  course.  For  such  reasons  no  course 
of  study  can  be  regarded  as  permanent  or  as  ideal.  What 
it  should  seek  to  do  is  not  to  set  limits  to  the  teacher's 
activity  nor  prescribe  the  exact  lines  of  class  progress,  but, 
like  other  forms  of  supervision,  to  set  up  ideals,  to  fix  mini- 
mum standards,  to  clarify  aims,  and  to  afford  as  much  as 
possible  of  practical  aid  and  suggestion.  The  functions  of 
a  useful  courge  of  study  may  be  summarized  thus  : 

1.  Clarify  the  teaching  aims  at  each  stage  of  the  child's 
advancement  and  in  every  subject  of  study  required.  These 
aims  should  be  in  terms  of  the  pupil's  abilities  which  are 
to  be  established. 

2.  Indicate  the  sort  of  pupil-activity  which  is  essential  in 
order  that  these  particular  abilities  may  be  developed. 

3.  Indicate  the  lesson  materials  or  subject  matter  available 
in  the  prescribed  texts,  supplementary  books,  reference  works, 
apparatus,  and  natural  and  social  environment,  through  the 
use  of  which  the  necessary  pupil-activity  may  conveniently 
and  profitably  be  stimulated. 

4.  Sugo^est  the  methods  and  motivatioti  particularly  adapted 
to  securing  the  necessary  jxi])il-activitv  most  economicallv  and 
effectively,  with  references  and  other  helps  for  the  teacher's 
guidance. 

5.  Suggest  practical  tests  of  the  abilities  sought,  by  which 
a  teacher  may  knoiv  positively  that  the  results  have  been 
attained  and  may  demonstrate  these  results  to  supervisors 
or  parents  and  to  the  pupils  themselves. 


I  14  SCHOOL    KI1K'IKN0\ 

Its  adaptability.  Such  a  course  of  stuiK"  sliould  be  and 
by  its  very  organization  will  be  readily  adaptable  to  (i)  vary- 
ing conditions  of  school  organization  ;  (2)  varying  length 
of  term,  equipment,  and  resources  ;  (3)  varying  methods, 
preparation,  and  abilities  of  teachers  ;  (4)  varying  local  inter- 
ests, ideals,  and  environment;  (5)  varying  indix'idual  capacities 
of  pupils. 

The  grade  teacher  does  not  make  tlie  course  of  stud)-  and 
is  not  likely  to  be  provided  with  an  ideal  course  —  if  indeed 
the  ideal  could  be  reduced  to  print.  Our  purpose  here.  then, 
is  not  to  advise  as  to  the  making  of  the  course  but  to  indi- 
cate what  it  is  that  the  teacher  should  look  for  in  the  one 
that  is  provided. 

Teacher's  use  of  the  course.  Whatever  be  its  form,  such 
ideas  as  these  must  govern  the  teacher's  interpretation  of 
his  course  of  study  before  he  is  really  prepared  to  make 
intelligent  use  of  it.  We  may  repeat  the  points  given  above 
in  the  form  of  questions  which  the  teacher  should  ])ut 
before  himself  in  preparing  to  use  anv  section  of  the 
course   assigned. 

1.  What  particular  part  does  this  assignment  have  in  the 
education  of  the  children  .''  What  useful  habit  or  skill  is  it 
intended  to  establish  }  What  ideals,  attitudes,  ambitions,  is 
it  supposed  to  arouse  .''  What  knowledge  is  to  be  imparted 
for  future  use  and  in  what  connections  or  with  what  degrees 
of  \ividne5s  should  it  be  established  in  order  to  function 
effectively  in  the  use  expected  of  it  ? 

2.  If  we  recognize  that  all  educative  growth  of  whatever 
sort  results  only  from  activity  of  the  j^upil,  what  kind  of  pupil- 
activity  is  essential  to  get  the  particular  pupil-development 
expected  of  this  assignment  ? 

3.  What  text  lesson  has  been  provided  by  the  authors  or 
prescribed  by  the  supervisory  authorities  or  is  otherwise  ac- 
cessible for  the  economical  and  effective  stimulation  of  pupils 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  115 

to  the  particular  educative  activity  desired  ?  Ordinarily  this 
is  the  one  function  which  the  courses  as  provided  do  accom- 
plish and  from  this  one  clue  the  teacher  must  determine 
the  rest. 

4.  With  the  books  and  equipment  as  our  materials  and 
the  required  pupil-activity  as  our  aim,  what  teaching  device, 
methods,  motivation,  class  exercise,  or  other  activity  of  the 
teacher  is  best,  for  getting  the  desired  results  ? 

5.  How  may  one  know  when  the  result  has  been  attained? 
when  to  continue  the  process  ?  when  to  discontinue  ?  when 
to  vary  ?  What  thing  can  a  pupil  do,  or  what  will  he  do  or 
want  to  do  and  try  to  do,  when  that  definite  educative  result 
has  been  accomplished  that  he  could  not  or  would  not  do 
before?  How  may  this  be  demonstrated  to  parents  and  pupils 
to  win  their  appreciation  and  cooperation  in  connection  with 
subsequent  assignments  or  in  promotions  and  retardations  ? 

6.  When  these  fundamental  questions  have  been  decided, 
just  how  must  they  be  varied  for  the  particular  conditions 
and  community  environments  in  which  one  is  teaching  at 
the  time?  How  may  local  situations  and  resources  be  utilized 
for  motivation  ?  What  correlations  and  concentrations  of  the 
subjects  and  topics  are  made  desirable  by  the  local  conditions 
or  by  the  peculiar  interests  and  experiences  of  pupils  or 
of  the  teacher  ?  What  variations  should  be  made  for  ex- 
ceptional individuals  ?  In  short,  every  pedagogical  consider- 
ation is  binding  upon  the  teacher,  regardless  of  the  course 
of  study.  Its  intent  is  to  fulfill  and  not  to  defeat  the 
principles  of  good   teaching. 

The  measure  of  good  teaching.  It  will  be  objected  that 
such  an  analysis  of  the  usual  course  is  beyond  the  capacitv 
of  the  ordinary  teacher.  From  this  objection  we  may  reach 
three  conclusions  :  first,  that  we  should  not  have  the  usual 
course ;  and  second,  that  we  should  not  have  ordinary 
teachers ;    and    third,   that    whatever    the  character   of    the 


ii6  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

course  or  of  the  teachers,  their  educative  value  to  the  chil- 
dren is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  clearness  with  which  the 
teacher  has  analyzed  the  task  assigned  in  just  this  manner. 
Whether  the  printed  outline  has  merely  set  page  limits  or 
has  been  constructively  helpful,  the  teacher  can  follow  it  and 
teach  only  by  knowing  the  abilities  or  educative  results 
sought  for,  the  pupil-activity  necessary  to  attain  such  results, 
the  way  by  which  the  lesson  material  may  be  used  to  bring 
about  the  activity  intended,  and  by  knowing  when  the  thing 
to  be  done  has  been  done.  Vaguely  and  indefinitely,  at 
least,  every  teacher  is  conscious  of  just  these  things  ;  but 
if  this  consciousness  is  vague  and  indefinite  so,  Hkewise,  are 
the  results  of  his  teaching.  A  more  adequate  analysis  along 
the  lines  indicated  will  mean  more  adequate  results. 

The  cause  of  bad  teaching.  Countless  teachers  have 
taught  arithmetic  under  a  vague  impression  or  perhaps  a 
specific  authoritative  statement  that  the  teaching  of  arith- 
metic to  a  pupil  trains  him  to  reason  and  prepares  him  for 
the  business  of  life,  when  it  was  easily  demonstrable  that 
the  reasoning  habits  resulting  from  that  arithmetic  teaching 
were  positively  pernicious  and  as  preparation  for  business  it 
was  worthless.  This  may  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
pupil  was  required  to  "  think  about "  combinations  which 
should  have  been  drilled  into  mechanical,  unthinking  re- 
sponse, or  that  he  was  "drilled  to  an  automatic  profi- 
ciency "  on  analyses  and  principles  in  which  the  maximum 
of  attention  —  the  very  opposite  of  automatic  response  —  is 
essential.  This  illustration  could  be  paralleled  in  every  sub- 
ject taught  in  the  school  and  is  typical  of  just  what  makes 
bad  teaching  bad. 

The  first  step  in  the  betterment  of  the  work  of  any 
teacher  is  to  let  him  into  the  secret  of  what  it  is  he  is 
trying  to  do.  The  next  is  to  disclose  the  same  esoterics 
to  the  pupil.    Whatever  can  be  done  to  guide  or  even  to 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  117 

force  the  teacher  to  thinking  on  these  things  is  just  so 
much  toward  making  bad  teaching  good.  The  poorer  the 
teacher  the  more  imperative  such  thinking  is.  Be  it  well 
done  or  poorly,  it  is  the  measure  of  the  excellence  of  his 
teaching.  At  the  very  least  it  keeps  a  teacher  growing 
instead  of  petrifying. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Compare  several  courses  of  study  with  reference  to  their 
relative  helpfulness.  What  are  the  features  which  contribute  most 
to  this  helpfulness  ? 

2.  Which  features  would  tend  to  lessen  the  teacher's  initia- 
tive .''  Which  would  impose  useless  restrictions  as  to  rate  of 
progress  ?  Which  indicate  assignments  in  terms  of  development 
of  pupils .'    Which  in   terms  of  topics  ?    Which  in  page  limits  ? 

3.  Classify  the  courses  as  (i)  information  or  knowledge  courses, 
(2)  development  courses  (Cubberly). 

4.  Compare  the  courses  with  reference  to  the  content  prescribed. 
What  provision  is  made  for  the  special  needs  of  the  city,  county,  or 
state  for  which  it  is  prepared  ?  What  provision  for  different  schools 
and  localities  within  the  area  in  which  it  is  used  ?  What  oppor- 
tunity or  aid  is  given  the  teacher  for  adapting  his  teaching  to  local 
needs  and  temporary  circumstances  ?  How  can  it  be  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  pupils  of  differing  abilities  ? 

5.  Compare  a  recent  course  with  one  twenty  or  more  years 
old.  What  difference  do  you  note  in  the  content  provided  ?  What 
difference  in  educative  aim  seems  to  be  involved  ? 

6.  Compare,  in  the  same  manner,  a  course  for  rural  schools 
with  one  for  city  schools. 

7.  Interpret  according  to  the  questions  under  " 'I'eacher's  use 
of  the  course  "  as  given  in  this  chapter,  the  work  assigned  for 
some  particular  grade  in  a  particular  coiu"se. 

8.  Can  \()u  disc()\er  instances  in  which  jnipils  ha\e  passed 
"  through  "  or  "  over  "  subjects  or  grades  but  do  not  give  evi- 
dence of  having  gotten  the  sort  of  development  that  the  course- 
makers  intended  the  subject  or  grade  to  accomplish  ? 


iiS  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

READINGS 

Baglev.    Educational  Values. 

Chanxellor.    Class  Teaching  and  Management,  chap.  iv. 

Chanxellou.    Our  Schools,  chap.  xii. 

Charter.s.    Methods  of  Teaching. 

CUBBERLV.    Public  School  Administration,  chap.  xvii. 

Di'TTO.x  and  S.\Kijni:N.    Administration  of   Public  Education  in  the 

United  States,  chap,  xviii. 
GoROV.    A  Broader  Elementary  Education. 
Klai'PEK.    Principles  of  Educational  Practice,  chaps,  vi-ix. 
McMuRKV.    Course  of  Study  in  the  Eight  Grades. 
Mo.NROE  (Sneddex).    Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  v. 
Ml'.nsterberg.    Psychology  and  the  Teacher,  chap.  xxv. 
Parker.    Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,  chap.  iv. 
Pavne.    Public  Elementary  School  Curricula. 
Prince.    Courses  and  Methods. 
Warner.    The  Study  of  Children,  chap.  xi. 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen,  National  Education  Association. 
Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  National  Education  Association. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin 

Bulletin  Xo.  j8.  191  3,  "  Economy  of  Time  in  Education." 


CHAPTER   XII 
ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL 

Origin  of  class  instruction.  John  Sturm  at  Strassburg 
in  1538  introduced  the  time  element  into  his  course  of 
study.  Melanchthon's  course  had  designated  the  things 
to  be  learned  and  the  order  of  their  being  taken  up,  but 
it  assumed  that  a  pupil  would  continue  upon  a  given  assign- 
ment until  it  was  learned  and  no  longer.  Sturm  sought  to 
make  the  product  of  two  constants,  the  time  and  the  texts, 
and  two  variables,  the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  produce  a 
constant  educative  result.  Great  as  have  been  the  advan- 
tages of  the  grade  organization  of  schools,  to  which  Sturm 
was  thus  an  important  contributor,  this  fallacy  has  been 
hard  to  live  down. 

At  his  time  lectures  were  delivered  in  the  universities  to 
large  audiences,  but  grading  was  not  thought  of  except  in  the 
final  examination  of  candidates  for  degrees.  For  nearly  three 
centuries  after  the  time  of  Sturm  the  actual  teaching  and  recit- 
ing of  lessons  was  still  a  purely  individual  matter  in  nearly 
all  schools.  Comcnius  (1592- 1670)  advocated  class  instruc- 
tion and  with  keen  insight  pointed  out  its  advantages  and  in- 
dicated the  method.  lUit  this  was  in  his  "Didactica  Magna," 
a  work  which  was  very  little  known  until  well  into  the  last 
century.  Jean  Baptiste  La  Salle,  about  i6e;5,  wrote  the 
"Conduct  of  the  Chri.stian  Schools"  as  a  detailed  guide 
for  the  Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools,  a  Catholic  order 
devoted  to  primary  charity  education.  In  this  work  he  ex- 
pounded the  method  of  class  teaching  in  great  detail  and 
may  well   be  called   the   inventor  of  class  instruction. 

119 


I20  SCHOOL  EFFICIENOV 

But  the  real  impetus  to  class  organization  was  given  at 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  when  Joseph  Lancaster, 
simultaneously  with  Dr.  Bell,  developed  among  the  poor 
children  of  London  a  scheme  whereby  one  teacher  could 
teach  as  many  as  a  thousand  cliildren  at  a  time.  This  was 
the  "  monitorial  system,"  and  it  consisted  in  organizing  the 
children  like  an  army  and  promulgating  lessons  through 
a  series  of  monitc^'s  as  a  general  would  issue  commands 
through  his  officers.  This  was  widely  hailed  as  a  marvelous 
solution  of  the  problem  of  universal  education  which  the 
recent  social  revolutions  had  then  made  prominent  in  the 
dreams  of  statesmen.  In  time  it  was  discovered,  as  was  neatly 
said,  that  it  was  a  means  whereby  at  next  to  no  cost  at  all 
a  community  could  secure  next  to  no  education  at  all.  But 
before  the  reaction  took  place  the  plan  had  been  w^idely  intro- 
duced and  the  right  of  all  children  to  an  education  was  recog- 
nized. It  was  gradually  superseded  in  England  by  the 
Dutch  plan  of  pupil-teachers,  which  made  permanent  appren- 
tice teachers  of  certain  older  pupils,  and  in  this  country  by 
the  organization  of  large  schools  on-  the  annual  grade  plan. 

The  trend  to  the  mechanicaL  During  the  nineteenth 
century  the  tendency  in  American  cities  was  toward  elabo- 
rate mechanical  organization.  Rigid  courses  of  study,  lock- 
step  methods  of  teaching,  inelastic  methods  of  marking  and 
grading,  and  promotions  by  rule  and  per  cents  had  well- 
nigh  eclipsed  consideration  of  the  individual  pupil.  Red  tape 
and  routine  were  rampant.  Smaller  towns  imitated  big  ones 
with  their  forms,  blanks,  regulations,  and  systems  ;  and  only 
in  the  country  schools  of  one  teacher  with  no  professional 
knowledge,  and  little  academic,  did  much  teaching  of 
individuals  survive. 

Ungraded  schools.  .Seeley  has  summarized  the  advantages 
of  an  ungraded  or  "mixed"  school  as  follows:  (i)  The 
child  learns  to  be  self-reliant.     (2)  It  encourages  individual 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  121 

work.  (3)  It  furnishes  an  opportunity  for  children  to  learn 
from  the  recitations  of  higher  classes.  (4)  There  arc  not  so 
many  outside  distractions  for  the  country  child.  {5)  Country 
school  affords  opportunity  to  study  nature  at  first  hand. 
(6)  It  trains  to  responsibility.  So  far  as  the  work  in  the 
school  is  concerned  it  would  seem  that  the  third  of  these 
arguments  largely  contradicts  the  fourth.  The  three  last 
mentioned  are  advantages  of  country  life  rather  than  of 
an  ungraded  condition  of  the  schools.  More  effective 
teaching  rather  than  the  mere  fact  of  lack  of  organization 
in  the  school  should  attain  all  the  advantages  mentioned. 

Values  of  grading.  Ungraded  public  schools  are  such 
solely  because  of  a  lack  of  pupils,  equipment,  supervision, 
or  teaching  force  to  make  grading  practicable.  Wherever 
possible  these  ungraded  schools  are  being  consolidated  into 
central  graded  schools.  That  they  should  have  been  de- 
fended at  all  means  simply  that  the  organization  of  the 
larger  schools  has  done  some  things  that  should  have  been 
left  undone.  There  is  no  good  thing  in  education  which 
can  be  done  with  small  means  which  should  not  be  better 
done  with  means  more  adequate.  If  a  good  thing  is  lost 
in  larger  organization,  the  conditions  and  not  the  fact  of 
the  organization  should  be  attacked. 

The  advantages  sought  in  the  organization  of  schools 
were  the  following  : 

1.  Economy  in  plant  and  equipment  and  more  especially 
in  the  teaching  force,  making  universal  education  possible. 

2.  Specialization  in  the  work  of  the  teacher,  thus  securing 
higher  special  preparation,  concentration  on  fewer  problems, 
expert  ability  developing  through  experience  in  a  narrower 
field,  and  greater  economv  of  effort  and  refinement  of 
methods. 

3.  Standardization  of  courses  of  study,  textbooks,  equip- 
ment, and  super\'ision. 


122  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

4.  Social  and  intellectual  values  of  ha\ing  pupils  work  in 
homogeneous  groups.  The  stimulation  of  competition  with 
one's  peers,  or  tlie  "  speeding-up  "  of  factory  parlance. 

Factory  organization  or  craftsmanship?  In  short,  the 
advantages  are  precisely  those  obtained  by  organization  in  any 
large  industry,  —  uniformity,  economy,  and  efficiency  through 
specialization  and  system.  But  the  limitation  of  values  in 
these  factory  methods  when  applied  to  schools  arises  from  the 
fact  that  children  are  not  inert  materials  to  be  manufactured 
into  a  uniform  product.  With  materials  never  identical  and 
with  laborers  in  the  educational  factory  working  through  their 
own  diverse  personalities  and  multiform  spiritual  processes  in- 
stead of  through  uniform  machines,  the  products  must  neces- 
sarily be  individual  ;  the  task,  that  of  a  craftsman  rather  than 
of  a  factory  operative.  The  effect  of  organization  upon  fac- 
tory workers  is  to  make  them  like  their  machines,  —  blindly 
obedient,  unthinking,  doing  automatically  and  without  varia- 
tion that  which  the  systematizing  head  has  predetermined. 
Supervision  of  craftsmen  would  seek  rather  to  suggest,  stimu- 
late, inspire ;  to  free  the  worker  of  needless  routine,  to  keep 
him  in  the  best  spirit  for  his  work,  to  hold  up  high  ideals, 
to  criticize  constructively,  to  keep  individuality  sacred. 

A  hard  problem  of  supervision  is  to  make  craftsmanship 
organization  effective  when  only  factory-hand  laborers  are 
available.  It  is  the  problem  of  fitting  ideal  policies  to  actual 
conditions.  The  proportion  of  professionally  trained  teachers 
is  yet  small,  and  even  the  graduates  of  short  normal  courses 
are  lacking  in  academic  breadth  and  cultural  ideals.  The 
majority  appear  to  be  dependent  on  detailed  methods  and 
rule-of-thumb  directions.  However,  since  the  perfunctory 
operatives  cannot  make  good  teachers,  whatever  the  super- 
vision, factory  organization  should  not  be  allowed  to  destroy 
the  initiative  of  the  true  craftsmen  nor  the  growth  of  those 
promising  ones  who  may  become  such. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  123 

Eight  and  four  or  six  and  six.  It  is  usual  in  America 
to  organize  the  public  schools  above  the  kindergarten  into 
four  primary  grades  and  four  grammar  grades,  these  eight 
years  (occasionally  seven  or  nine)  constituting  the  elemen- 
tary school,  and  fcnir  years  more  known  as  high  school  or 
secondary  instruction.  Completion  of  these  grades,  with 
certain  restrictions  as  to  work  covered,  will  admit  to  most 
American  colleges.  Of  late  there  has  been  much  advocacy 
and  increasing  development  of  the  "six  and  six"  plan,  in 
which  there  are  six  years  of  elementary  work  and  six  of  high 
school,  the  latter  six  divided  into  three  years  of  "'  junior  " 
and  three  years  of  "  senior  "  high  school.  Reasons  for  this 
change  given  by  Ignited  States  Commissioner  Claxton  are 
the  following  :  the  transition  to  high-school  methods  corre- 
sponds more  closely  with  the  beginning  of  adolescence  or 
the  change  from  childhood  to  youth  ;  the  present  course 
is  weakest  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  ;  the  begin- 
ning year  of  the  junior  high  school  will  be  the  best  place 
to  begin  departmental  instruction ;  the  expansion  of  the 
work  of  the  secondary  schools  in  languages  and  mathe- 
matics will  result  in  a  considerable  gain  in  time  and  will 
approximate  the  standards  of  European  schools  ;  a  further 
differentiation  of  the  courses  in  the  senior  high  schools  is 
practicable  ;  the  beginning  of  high  school  work  just  at  the 
end  of  the  compulsory  period  has  confirmed  an  idea  that 
only  elementary  education  is  needed  ;  it  better  solves  the 
problem  of  housing  the  classes. 

Departmental  teaching.  In  dcjiartmental  teaching  a 
teacher  is  assigned  to  one  or  more  subjects  in  several 
grades,  instead  of  being  assigned  to  entire  charge  of  all 
subjects  in  a  single  grade.  It  assumes  that  a  teacher  should 
be  primarily  a  specialist  in  the  content  and  method  of  the 
subjects  he  teaches.  The  other  ])lan  regards  him  rather  as 
a  specialist  in  children  of  the  age  he  is  teaching  and  the 


124  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

siibject  matter  as  presumed  in  his  j^reparation.  In  the 
])rimar\-  i^rades  certainly  the  teacher  is  first  of  all  ///  loco 
Diutris,  and  subject  specialization  would  be  absurd.  In 
college  and  high-school  teaching  the  pupil  has  less  need 
of  parental  oversight,  while  the  subjects  are  suflficiently 
advanced  to  require  a  specialist  to  teach  tlicm  effectively. 
Just  when  the  ideal  point  of  transition  is  reached  has  been 
long  in  question.  As  indicated  above,  the  sixth  grade  is 
perhaps  the  best  place  for  this  change.  In  every  grade 
every  pupil  should  have  some  one  teacher  to  whom  he  looks 
for  advice  and  guidance,  someone  who  is  interested  in  him 
personally  and  who  is  responsible  for  his  conduct  in  the 
same  degree  that  a  grade  teacher  is  for  the  children  of  his 
grade.  Every  high-school  group  should  have  some  member 
of  the  teaching  corps  as  advisory  teacher  who  will  keep 
their  records,  supervise  their  study  periods,  and  have  general 
charge  of  them  except  in  the  teaching  of  lessons  assigned  to 
other  teachers.  No  child  should  be  at  school  without  feel- 
ing that  someone  is  his  oivn  teacher.  This  feeling  of  mu- 
tual interest  and  confidence  may  be  increased  by  keeping 
the  same  teacher  in  charge  of  a  given  group  throughout 
their  entire  high-school  course.  Where  this  close  ])ersonal 
relation  is  made  permanent,  however,  some  element  of  per- 
sonal choice  on  the  part  of  teacher  or  pupil  should  enter 
into  the  selection  of  advisers  for  the  groups. 

Aims  of  modern  organization.  Modern  school  organiza- 
tion, which  seeks  to  get  away  from  mere  mechanism  and  to 
make  teaching  vital,  develops  rather  than  directs  its  teachers. 
It  suggests,  sets  ideals,  fixes  aims  and  standards,  inspires, 
and  then  it  holds  the  teacher  rigidly  responsible  for  results 
in  terms  of  real  capacities  developed  in  the  children.  It 
keeps  the  teachers  stucKing  the  individual  pupils,  keeps 
them  diagnosing  individual  defects  and  seeking  causes  and 
remedies ;    keeps  them   appreciating  superior  ai)i1ities   and 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  125 

developing  them  to  the  utmost ;  it  prevents  them  hiding  in 
cowardly  formality  behind  chance  percentages  in  arbitrary 
examinations.  It  makes  the  teacher  conscious  that  he  cannot 
blandly  wash  his  hands  of  responsibility  for  a  pupil  by  merely 
marking  him  "  failed,"  but  that  it  is  the  teacher  who  fails 
if  he  does  not  make  the  most  of  whatever  possibilities  there 
may  be  in  a  given  child.  Fifty  per  cent  on  grammar  and 
high  standing  in  constructiveness,  determination,  and  prac- 
tical usefulness  is  no  more  "failure"  than  one  hundred  per 
cent  on  grammar  and  half  efficiency  in  the  other  attain- 
ments. Educational  tradition  has  reduced  but  a  few  forms  of 
mental  and  moral  attainment  to  lessons,  textbooks,  and  ex- 
amination grades.  Modern  organization  is  seeking  to  free 
these  from  the  shackles  of  tradition  and  bring  many  others 
to  due  recognition.  It  also  regards  the  teacher's  health, 
happiness,  and  enthusiasm  as  teaching  values  worthv  of 
monetary  investment,  and  it  counts  friction  and  discourage- 
ment as  waste  no  less  real  than  financial  loss.  It  uses 
formality  and  routine  as  labor-saving  devices  in  the  field 
of  external  nonessentials,  but  makes  the  heart  of  teach- 
ing something  more  spiritual  than  mere  courses,  methods, 
systems,  and  facts. 

Indictment  of  the  mechanical  systems.  The  indictment 
of  the  mere  mechanical  organization  that  has  become  tradi- 
tional may  be  summed  up  :  It  is  based  on  the  false  assump- 
tion that  all  children  can  or  should  advance  at  a  uniform 
rate,  that  they  can  be  assorted  into  grades  of  homogeneous 
capacities  and  separated  grade  from  grade  In-  fixed  and  uni- 
form intervals.  At  the  end  of  a  session,  work  below  an 
arbitrary  standard  of  attainment,  as  determined  bv  notori- 
ously defectixe  measurements,  is  rejected  as  "  failure  "  and 
counted  as  nothing,  regardless  of  the  actual  development  of 
the  pupil.  The  pupil  is  recjuircd  to  repeat  the  work  of  the 
term   in   precisely  the   same   manner  that   he  went  over   it 


126  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

before,  insuring  that  the  defects  of  the  previous  term  will 
be  repeated  in  the  second  in  the  same  manner  and  for  the 
same  reason.  He  becomes  discouraged  and  paralyzed  with 
his  sense  of  failure  ;  or  he  becomes  resentful,  ascribing  his 
defeat  to  the  injustice  of  teachers  or  the  good  fortune  of  his 
quicker-minded  fellow  pupils ;  he  loses  interest  and  ambition, 
which  are  the  only  forces  by  which  he  can  progress ;  he  turns 
to  idleness  and  mischief,  thus  insuring  a  second  failure,  and 
the  second  failure  almost  inevitably  leads  to  early  elimina- 
tion from  the  school  altogether  —  the  worst  failure  of  which 
any  school  system  can  be  guilty.  To  avoid  this  ruinous  and 
humiliating  disgrace  of  '"  failure,"  sensitive  children  often 
break  down  in  health  from  overstudy  and  anxiety.  Mean- 
while other  children  show  the  prescribed  attainment  with 
very  little  educative  effort,  development,  or  character  build- 
ing. Having  much  time  unemployed  in  study,  this  abler 
group  discharges  an  enormous  amount  of  energy  into  the 
usual  occupations  of  idle  hands.  For  lack  of  effort  they 
soon  acquire  habits  of  inattention  and  mischief  and  of  work- 
ing far  below  their  maximum  capacity  —  which  last  is  the 
surest  guarantee  of  ultimate  worthlessness.  Ambition  to  ad- 
vance beyond  the  slower  members  of  the  class  is  thwarted 
by  impassable  gaps  between  the  ambitious  child  and  the  next 
grade  above.  There  is  no  provision  made  for  him  to  bridge 
the  gap,  and  if  he  jumps  it,  his  preparation  is  defective  for 
much  of  the  work  in  the  grades  above. 

Such  a  system  fosters  impersonal,  routine  teaching  and 
promoting.  The  work  becomes  a  monotonous  grind  ;  the 
grade,  a  Procrustean  bed.  It  reduces  subjects  and  parts  of 
subjects  to  a  dead  level  and  discourages  originality  and 
initiative  in  pupil  or  teacher.  It  suppresses  genius  and  ambi- 
tion and  makes  supervision  mechanical  and  arbitrary.  The 
social  values  possible  to  a  class  recitation  are  destroyed  by 
the  rigidity  of  the  grouping. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  127 

Does  grading  grade  ?  How  utterly  the  formal  grading 
systems  fail  to  do  the  very  thing  they  purport  to  do  —  sort 
the  children  according  to  their  mental  capacity  —  is  shown 
by  numerous  scientific  tests  made  within  the  past  decade. 
Tests  of  the  "  Reasoning  Ability  of  Children  of  the  4th, 
5th,  and  6th  Grades,"  made  by  Dr.  I^onser  in  19 10,  showed 
that  90  per  cent  of  the  4  A  pupils  tested  were  superior  to  the 
poorest  of  the  5  A  pupils,  and  that  79  per  cent  of  them  were 
better  than  the  poorest  of  the  6  A  pupils.  The  same  results 
showed  I  5  per  cent  of  the  pupils  of  this  grade  to  be  better 
than  the  middle  pupil  of  the  5  A  grade,  and  5  per  cent  of 
them  to  be  better  than  the  middle  pupil  of  the  6  A  grade. 
Thorndike  concludes  that  "the  result  of  actual  school  grad- 
ing is  to  pick  the  most  able  for  the  highest  grade  hardly  four 
times  in  ten."  The  fundamental  abilities  in  arithmetic  are 
usually  regarded  as  the  chief  basis  of  grading,  yet  the  Courtis 
tests  in  just  these  abilities  show  that  there  will  be  found  in 
any  fourth  grade,  pupils  whose  ability  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
average  pupil  of  the  seventh  grade  or  to  that  of  more  than 
a  fourth  of  the  eighth-grade  pupils  ;  and  that  there  will  be 
found  in  the  eighth  grade,  pupils  whose  ability  in  these 
arithmetic  fundamentals  is  below  the  average  ability  in  the 
fifth  grade  or  that  of  a  third  of  the  pupils  in  the  fourth 
grade.  These  results  are  taken  from  thousands  of  classes  in 
the  best  cities  and  schools  of  the  country,  and  will  be  found 
typical  almost  everywhere,  regardless  of  rigidity  of  grading. 

Semiannual  grades.  The  first  step  toward  relieving  the 
overmechanizing  of  city  school  systems  was  the  introduc- 
tion of  semiannual  instead  of  annual  grades.  This  involves 
starting  a  new  class  of  beginners  twice  a  year,  having  twice 
as  many  grades  as  there  are  years  in  the  course,  and  graduat- 
ing two  groups  annually.  By  this  means  the  evils  of  retarda- 
tion and  the  obstacles  to  acceleration  are,  at  most,  but  half 
as  great.    The  half-year  interval  is  not  so  great  but  that  the 


I2S  SCHOOL  EFFICIKNCY 

ambitious  child  may  make  up  his  deficiencies  and  overtake 
the  grade  ahead  b\-  means  of  vacation  and  private  study. 
The  plan  is  in  very  general  use.  It  is  capable  of  the  same 
improvements  as  the  annual  grade  plan  and  is  subject,  in 
less  degree,  to  the  same  evils  of  mechanical  rigidity. 

Shorter  intervals.  Still  shorter  intervals  between  classes, 
six  to  ten  weeks,  have  been  advocated  and  have  proved  suc- 
cessful where  the  size  of  the  schools  insures  a  sufficient 
number  of  teachers.  Dr.  \V.  T.  Harris  had  such  a  system 
in  St.  Louis  as  early  as  1870  and  said  of  it,  "  Should  it  be 
necessary  to  put  back  a  pupil  to  a  lower  class,  he  finds  it  at 
just  the  stage  of  progress  which  will  enable  him  to  review 
and  strengthen  those  portions  of  his  course  that  need  it." 

Special  classes.  Dr.  Harris  also  sought  to  remedy  the 
waste  arising  from  misfits  in  the  grades  by  establishing  special 
schools  and  classes.  Such  special  classes  have  been  largely 
introduced  in  recent  years.  They  are  unquestionably  neces- 
sary for  the  physically  and  mentally  deficient  who  cannot 
profit  by  the  regular  instruction  of  the  school,  but  the  normal 
child  who  has  merely  got  a  little  behind  his  class  should 
be  able  to  find  his  level  in  the  regular  school.  Cubberly 
names  twenty-two  kinds  of  special  classes  which  have  been 
organized  to  provide  for  those  who  cannot  be  fitted  into  the 
regular  work. 

Cambridge  "double-track"  plan.  In  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, the  "  double-track  "  j^lan  was  devised  by  dividing 
the  grammar-school  course  of  study  in  two  ways.  It  was 
divided  (i)  into  four  parts,  each  of  which  would  constitute 
a  year's  work  for  the  more  capable  pupils,  and  (2)  into  six 
parts,  each  being  a  year's  work  for  a  slow  pupil.  More 
recently  it  has  been  applied  to  the  entire  elementary  course. 
This  is  divided  into  eight  yearly  grades  of  three  terms  each 
and  also  into  six  grades  of  three  terms  each,  except  that  the 
last  year  in  each  course  is  divided  into  two  parts.   This  gives 


OROANIZATIOX   OF  THE  SCHOOL  129 

the  rapid  group  one-third  more  work  than  the  slow  ones  in 
each  term  and  provides  five  different  points  at  term  ends  at 
which  the  two  divisions  are  together,  if  both  sections  start 
at  the  beginning  of  every  term.  Transfers  may  be  made  from 
one  to  the  other  at  any  of  these  five  points.  Any  given  pupil 
may  thus  complete  the  course  in  anywhere  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  terms  without  being  turned  back  at  any  time. 
This  plan  is  adaptable  only  for  large  school  systems  and  as 
a  permanent  policy.  It  cannot  well  be  tried  out  in  less  than 
eight  years.  It  tends  to  keep  the  poorest  pupils  together 
and  in  many  particulars  may  be  made  as  mechanical  as  any 
other  plan. 

Pueblo  or  individual  plan.  A  radical  plan  of  escape  from 
the  Procrustean  s\'stenis  of  grading  was  that  adopted  by 
Superintendent  Search  at  Pueblo,  Colorado.  He  abolished 
class  recitations  on  the  ground  that  they  are  full  of  '"  dead 
time"  and  that  "they  reflect  on  the  honesty  of  the  pupil's 
preparation."  Occasional  class  exercises  were  for  the  pur- 
pose of  presenting  fundamental  principles  or  working  direc- 
tions. There  was  no  attempt  to  keep  pupils  together,  but 
each  task  must  be  finished  before  the  next  was  undertaken 
and  every  part  of  every  lesson  was  recited  by  each  individ- 
ual. No  home  study  was  permitted  and  very  large  discretion 
was  given  the  pupil  as  to  the  direction  of  his  time  in  school. 
It  was  claimed  that  this  plan  relieved  phvsical  strain  ;  trained 
independent,  self-reliant  workers;  that  more  and  better  work 
was  done;  more  supplementary  work  could  be  accomplished, 
and  that  there  was  more  enthusiasm  and  less  discouragement 
than  under  the  grade  system. 

Batavia  plan.  Superintendent  Kennedv  of  Batavia, 
New  York,  introduced  a  plan  of  supplying  additional 
teachers  to  cooperate  with  the  regular  class  teachers  bv 
supervising  the  study  of  pupils  individually.  This  plan 
admirably  combines  the  advantages  of  class  recitation  and 


I30  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

of  individual  trainin<;.  The  essence  of  it  is  that  it  pro- 
vides for  individual  instruction  at  regular  periods  by  com- 
petent teachers  and  on  a  definite  pedagogical  basis,  as  a 
supplement  to  the  usual  class  work.  As  the  principle  may 
be  adapted  to  almost  any  conditions  and  may  be  used  by 
one  teacher  in  a  room  by  providing  study  periods,  it  has 
been  very  widely  used  with  generally  favorable  results.  The 
danger  is  "  that  the  weaker  pupils  will  be  still  further  weak- 
ened by  a  "  coaching  '  process  that  does  nothing  whatsoever 
for  their  real  education."  This,  however,  is  a  fault  of  the 
instruction  and  not  of  the  plan.  The  technique  of  individual 
instruction  in  plans  of  this  sort  necessitates  that  (l)  nothing 
be  told  the  child  and  nothing  done  for  him  but  that  he  be 
stimulated  and  directed  to  finding  out  and  doing  for  him- 
self, that  is,  instruction  must  be  by  "development";  (2)  ini- 
tiative in  helping  must  be  taken  by  the  teacher  rather  than 
at  the  call  of  the  pupil ;  (3)  no  instruction  shall  be  given 
upon  the  advanced  lesson.  It  must  never  degenerate  into 
helping  children  to  get  tlicir  lessons.  Teachers  must  dis- 
cover in  class  recitation  and  b)-  individual  testing  the  needs 
of  each  child  and  direct  the  particular  exercise  which  will 
remedy  the  deficiency.  Attention  to  individuals  aims  to  pre- 
vent retardation,  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  the  class,  and 
to  aid  more  capable  pupils  to  get  into  more  advanced  classes. 
The  value  of  the  system  depends  on  the  spirit  in  which  it 
is  carried  out,  but  the  need  for  individual  instruction  and 
for  separate  supervised  study  periods  has  been  established 
beyond  question. 

Flexible  or  shifting  group  plan.  In  various  cities  —  Seattle, 
Denver,  and  Elizabeth,  New  Jersey,  being  among  the  pio- 
neers—  there  have  been  adopted  plans  of  organization  vary- 
ing somewhat  in  detail  from  a  plan  outlined  by  Dr.  W.  T. 
Harris  in  the  St.  Louis  reports  of  about  1870.  The  essence 
of  all    these    is   flexible   grading,   with   groups    progressing 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  131 

through  the  course  of  study  at  varying  rates  and  pupils 
transferred  from  group  to  group  at  any  time  according  to 
their  individual  needs.  Under  such  a  plan  the  beginning 
grade  is  tentatively  separated  into  two  groups  at  the  end 
of  the  first  week  or  two,  one  group  consisting  of  the  most 
capable  third  or  half  of  the  class.  The  slower  group  may 
be  divided  again  after  a  month  or  so  of  further  trial.  The 
groups  remain  in  the  same  room  under  the  instruction  of 
the  same  teacher  and  in  some  exercises  are  taught  together 
as  a  single  class.  Each  group  advances  along  the  prescribed 
course  of  study  as  rapidly  as  it  can  do  the  work  satisfac- 
torily. At  the  end  of  the  year  the  middle  group  will  have 
just  about  covered  the  requirements  for  the  grade  ;  the  slow 
group  will  lack  about  a  fourth  of  completing  the  require- 
ments, and  the  rapid  group  will  probably  be  one  fourth 
through  the  work  of  the  next  session.  During  the  second 
or  third  term  the  fast  group  will  have  overtaken  the  slow 
group  which  started  one  term  earlier.  These  are  then  merged 
and  proceed  as  one  until  another  separation  becomes  desir- 
able. Some  of  the  members  of  the  section  overtaken  will 
be  caught  up  and  taken  ahead  with  the  more  rapidly  mov- 
ing group,  and  some  of  the  rapidly  moving  section  will  be 
left  to  go  for  a  while  at  the  slower  pace.  Before  long  the 
middle  group  will  ha\e  overtaken  this  same  slow  group 
and  the  rapid  group  will  have  overtaken  the  next  group 
ahead.  There  is  thus  a  constant  merging  and  reclassifying, 
each  group  changing  its  personnel  and  taking  its  grade 
name,  as  4  A,  5  B,  etc.,  from  its  position  in  the  course  at 
the  time.  In  each  group  there  may  be  pupils  who  are  going 
through  the  course  at  every  possible  rate  of  progress.  Each 
child  has  the  opportunity  by  outstripping  his  group  to 
pass  presently  into  one  that  moves  more  rapidl)-.  If  always 
among  the  best,  he  will  finish  an  eight-year  course  in  six 
to  six  and  a  half  years.     If  always  among  the  slowest  he 


132  SCHOOL  EFFICIKNCV 

will  require  ten  years  or  more.  In  neither  ease  is  there  an)" 
reason  for  skipping  or  for  being  turned  back  over  any  por- 
tion of  the  work.  The  pupil  who  falls  behind  because  of 
absence  may  do  the  lost  work  in  a  lower  grouj5  while  con- 
tinuing to  advance  with  his  own  class  or  he  may  droj)  back 
into  the  next  section  and  then  work  his  wa)'  up  by  keeping 
at  the  head.  The  sifting  is  upward  instead  of  downward. 
There  are  no  "  failures,"  but  the  poorest  pupils  advance 
only  so  fast  as  they  are  made  thorough  on  the  essentials. 
The  abler  ones  increase  their  speed  much  as  a  man  runs 
up  a  moving  stairway,  by  moving  from  step  to  step  as  the 
steps  themselves  move  upward. 

With  semiannual  or  shorter  intervals  between  the  admis- 
sion of  new  classes,  pupils  should  ordinarily  advance  from 
room  to  room  only  at  the  end  of  the  term.  Any  teacher 
may  thus  be  called  upon  to  teach  groups  as  much  as  a  half 
term  above  or  below  that  prescribed  for  his  grade.  A  pupil 
might  skip  a  given  room  without  skipping  any  of  its  work. 

Flexible  subject  grouping.  The  grouping  and  advance- 
ment in  the  plan  just  outlined  is  based  primarily  upon 
fundamental  attainments  in  the  formal  or  basic  subjects.  It 
is  usual  to  have  distinct  grouping  in  reading  and  number 
work  in  the  primary  classes  ;  and  in  arithmetic,  language, 
geography,  and  history  in  the  grammar  grades.  It  will  fre- 
quently happen  that  a  pupil  will  make  rapid  progress  in  one 
subject  while  slow  in  another.  This  makes  his  particular 
weakness  evident  to  himself  and  to  his  teacher,  and  he  may 
devote  more  of  his  time  and  effort  to  that  branch  which  is 
difficult  for  him  and  less  to  that  in  which  he  excels,  until  his 
rate  of  progress  is  fairly  balanced.  He  may  drop  some  sub- 
ject entirely  while  he  is  catching  up  in  another.  When  a 
disparity  of  this  sort  is  characteristic  of  many  pupils  it  is  an 
indication  that  the  course  of  study  is  not  well  balanced  or 
the  teacher's  methods  need  revision.     In  those  subjects  in 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  133 

which  attainment  is  more  diificult  to  determine,  as  reading, 
or  less  essential  to  advancement,  as  penmanship  or  spelling, 
instead  of  two  or  three  groups  to  a  grade  there  may  be  only 
one.  In  these  subjects  minimum  capacities  to  do  certain 
things  should  be  prescribed  as  the  necessary  work  of  the 
grade.  Abler  pupils  should  be  stimulated  to  higher  attain- 
ments and  the  time  they  save  through  their  greater  abilities 
may  be  given  either  to  enriching  the  work  of  any  course  or 
to  more  rapid  progress  in  any  subject.  In  the  last  year  of 
the  course  there  should  be  sufficient  latitude  in  every  sub- 
ject for  those  groups  which  would  finish  in  the  midst  of  a 
term  to  have  abundant  profitable  occupation  until  the  end 
of  the  session. 

Differentiated  courses.  This  particular  idea  —  varying 
breadth  of  the  work  for  varying  abilities  rather  than  vary- 
ing rates  of  progress  through  the  course  —  is  made  the  basis 
of  the  form  of  organization  known  as  the  "  differentiated 
course  "  plan,  worked  out  at  Santa  Barbara,  California.  A 
course  was  prepared  j^rescribing  the  minimum  requirements 
for  each  grade,  a  second  course  indicated  additional  work 
which  should  sup])lement  the  minimum  course  for  abler  pu- 
pils, and  a  third  course  included  still  further  enrichments. 
All  pupils  go  forward  at  the  same  rate,  but  the  extent  of 
the  instruction  received  in  each  grade  is  in  proportion  to 
the  ability  of  the  group. 

Essentials  of  flexibility.  The  essential  element  of  any 
plan  of  organization  which  seeks  to  preserve  the  individu- 
ality and  to  develo])  the  varying  possibilities  of  every  child 
seems  to  be  flexibility.  L'ntil  there  are  far  more  reliable 
means  of  determining  whether  apparent  deficiencies  of  chil- 
dren are  real  or  whether  temporarv-  hmitations  are  perma- 
nent, even  the  wisest  teachers  slioukl  be  very  slow  to  separate 
children  into  permanent  divisions.  It  is  not  nature's  law 
that  children  should  grow  at  an  even   rate.    They  develop 


134  SCHOOL   EFFICIENCY 

by  fits  and  starts.  Their  interests  and  their  moods  arc 
changeable.  In  the  effort  to  provide  different  sorts  and 
grades  of  instruction  to  fit  the  needs  of  different  sorts  and 
grades  of  children,  let  us  not  assume  that  we  have  the  knowl- 
edge or  skill  to  fit  the  one  to  the  other  except  in  a  general 
way.  We  must  not  forget  that,  whatever  the  native  pos- 
sibilities of  a  child,  our  putting  him  in  a  special  class  and 
confining  him  to  special  kinds  of  instruction  may  give  him 
the  bias  we  assumed  that  he  had  or  may  prevent  the  devel- 
oping of  the  possibilities  we  assumed  that  he  did  not  have. 
Permanent  groupings  tend  to  get  any  mind  into  a  narrow 
rut  at  the  time  it  most  needs  breadth.  They  fail  to  develop 
leadership  in  the  stronger  minds  and  fail  to  stimulate  the 
weaker  or  less  ambitious  children.  For  these  reasons,  what- 
ever the  size  of  the  teaching  corps,  every  teacher  should 
have  not  less  than  two  groups  in  charge  at  all  times,  with 
the  continuous  necessity  of  reclassifying  the  pupils  accord- 
ing to  their  attainments.  The  teacher  of  such  flexible  groups 
should  feel  the  constant  responsibility  for  individual  instruc- 
tion, for  strengthening  the  weaker  pupils  and  discovering 
the  talent  of  the  stronger  ones.  Under  individual  teaching 
the  weaker  pupils  get  the  larger  portion  of  the  teacher's 
time  and  the  stronger  ones  have  more  opportunity  to  rely 
upon  themselves. 

Values  of  flexibility.  71ie  plan  of  flexible  groups,  com- 
bined perhaps  with  the  differentiated  course  in  some  or  all 
branches  and  certainly  with  the  study  periods  and  individual 
instruction  of  the  Batavia  system,  seems  to  embody  all  the 
ideals  of  grading.  Some  of  its  advantages  may  be  summed 
up  thus  : 

1.  Its  flexibility  permits  almost  endless  adaptations  to 
varying  conditions. 

2.  Individual  instruction  and  class  organization  are  both 
provided  for,  and  any  variation  of  these  may  be  utilized. 


ORGANIZATION   OF    IHE  SCHOOL  135 

3.  The  evils  of  retardation  and  the  difficulties  of  accelera- 
tion are  mostly  removed.  Every  child  is  placed  where  he 
may  work  to  the  limit  of  his  capacity  and  progress  directly 
as  he  succeeds.  It  need  never  be  said  that  "  to  some  there 
is  effort  without  success  ;  to  others  success  without  effort." 

4.  The  incentive  of  advancement  is  constantly  present 
to  every  child  ;  the  reward  for  earnestness  always  sure,  and 
in  direct  proportion  to  effort. 

5.  The  pressure  is  even  throughout  the  session,  not  con- 
centrated into  a  dangerous  strain  at  the  time  of  examinations 
for  promotion. 

6.  It  measures  pupil  and  teacher  alike  by  results,  in  terms 
of  the  pupil-capacities  developed. 

7.  The  individual  needs  of  each  pupil  become  the  prime 
study  of  the  teacher  and  the  supervisor.  This  makes  for 
good  teaching  and  a  progressive  teaching  corps. 

8.  The  teacher  must  have  a  specific  reason  at  any  time  for 
the  precise  classification  of  each  child,  and  this  reason  becomes 
a  guide  for  his  teaching  and  for  the  child's  own  efforts. 

9.  The  attention  of  pupils,  teachers,  and  supervising 
authorities  and  the  content  of  the  course  of  study  are 
centered  upon  abilities  developed  instead  of  ground  covered 
or  time  spent  on  a  topic. 

10.  The  continual  and  inexhaustible  stream  of  bright 
pupils  coming  up  from  below  affords  a  constant  stimulus 
to  those  who  are  going  at  a  slower  rate.  There  is  no  per- 
manent segregation  of  slow  pupils  into  one  class. 

1 1 .  The  plan  may  be  made  to  combine  every  time-saving 
routine  device  in  class  organization  and  yet  preserve  personal 
touch  and  indi\idual  attention  in  instruction. 

Teachers  who  are  mentally  laz\-  and  those  who  are  {pro- 
fessionally ossified  invariably  object  to  a  flexible  system  of 
the  sort.  The  very  heart  of  it  is  that  it  keeps  them  think- 
ing, and  demands  an  unending  adjustment  of  course  and 


136  SCHOOL    KIMCIKNCY 

method  to  immediate  needs.  Inaction  and  petrifaction  can- 
not operate  such  a  i)lan.  I'erhajjs  the  greatest  merit  of  the 
whole  tiexible  scheme  is  that  teachers  of  that  sort  must 
change  or  make  their  inefficiency  obvious.  In'experienced 
and  untrained  teachers  will  find  it  only  a  little  more  difficult 
than  a  rigid  routine  system  at  first,  and  if  worthy,  they  will 
quickly  improve  JDy  means  of  its  very  requirements.  If  they 
cannot  improve,  they  should  not  teach.  Such  a  system 
inevitably  means  teacher-growth. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Investigate  and  sketch  the  scliool  history  of  several  children 
who  failed  in  or  repeated  one  or  more  grades  in  a  rigid  system 
of  gradation. 

2.  If  possible,  find  the  per  cent  of  failures  among  pupils  who 
have  previously  repeated  some  grade  and  compare  with  the  per- 
centage for  the  whole  school.  Does  repeating  a  grade  seem  to 
tend   to  more  or  less  thoroughness  ? 

3.  State  the  desirable  and  objectionable  features  of  the  grading 
system  used  in  your  schools. 

4.  Describe  the  best  features  of  any  grading  .system  of  your 
acquaintance  which  you  regard  as  particularly  good. 

5.  How  could  you  embody  some  of  the  advantages  of  flexible 
grading  in  your  school  system,  even  though  the  plan  as  a  whole 
were  not  adopted  ?  What  features  of  it  could  be  adopted  in  a 
single  grade,  even  without  adoption  by  other  grades  ? 

READINGS 

Ayres.    Laggards  in  our  vSchools. 
Baglev.    Classroom  Management,  chap.  xiv. 
Chancellor.    Class  Teaching  and  Management,  chap.  vii. 
CoLGROVE.    The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chap.  v. 
CuBHERLV.    Public  School  Administration,  chap,  xviii. 
DuTTON'.    .School  Management,  chap.  vi. 

DuTTON  and  Snedokx.     Administration  of  Public   I'ducation  in  the 
United  States,  chap.  xi.x. 


ORGANIZATION   OF  THE  SCHOOL  137 

Gilbert.    The  School  and  its  Life.  chap.  vii. 

GoRUV.    A  Broader  Elementary  Education,  chap.  x.xi. 

HlxsUALE.    Studies  in  Education,  chap.  xiv. 

Jones.    Teaching  Children  to  Study. 

McMuRKV.    Elementary  School  Standards,  chaps,  viii,  ix. 

MuNSTERBERCj.    Psychology  and  the  Teacher,  chap,  xxviii. 

Perry.    Management  of  a  City  School,  chap.  x. 

Search.    The  Ideal  School,  chaps,  i,  iii,  vii. 

Sreley.    New  School  Management,  chap.  vi. 

Strayer  and  Thor.nuike.    Educational  Administration,  Part  IV. 

To.Mi'Kl.vs.    School  Management,  pp.  1-24. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletins 

Bulletin  No.  14,  191 1,  "Provision  for  Exceptional  Children  in  the 
Public  Schools  "  (Van  Sickle,  et  al.). 

Bulletin  No.  42,  191  5,  "Advancement of  a  Teacher  with  the  Class" 
(Mahoney). 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  • 

Report,  1 891 -1 892,  pp.  601-636. 

Report,  1 898-1 899,  pp.  330-346. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
PROMOTIONS  AND   PUPIL    PROGRESS 

Promoting  machinery.  PLvcry  teaclier  has  found  difficulty 
at  the  close  of  the  term  in  satisf\injj,-  himself  as  to  whether 
certain  pupils  should  or  should  not  be  promoted.  It  is 
probable  that  he  has  found  still  more  difficulty  in  satisfying 
other  interested  parties  on  this  point.  To  avoid  just  these 
difficulties  teaching  traditions  and  school  systems  have  built 
up  an  artificial  mechanism  of  examinations,  grades,  and  term 
marks  to  take  the  place  of  the  teacher's  decision  and  to 
bear  the  responsibility  in  the  matter  of  promotions.  Sup- 
ported by  figures  that  "  cannot  lie,"  the  teacher  smugly 
assumes  that  his  promoting  machinery  "  is  perfectly  fair, 
because  it  treats  all  just  alike."  In  fact,  treating  all  just 
alike  would  necessarily  be  grossly  unjust  to  all  but  a  few  ; 
for  children,  being  quite  unlike  each  other,  need  quite 
different  treatment.  And  if  it  were  just,  it  would  still  be 
impossible,  for  what  affects  one  child  in  one  way  is  sure 
to  affect  another  child  in  another  way. 

Nonpromotions.  In  a  rigid  grading  system  the  promo- 
tion problem  is  truly  the  root  of  many  evils.  The  doubtful 
pupil  if  promoted  is  likely  to  suffer  through  his  poor  prep- 
aration, wliile  from  his  nonpromotion  arise  most  of  the 
disorders  of  the  classroom,  most  of  the  discouragement,  the 
sullenness  and  resentment,  the  charges  of  partiality  and 
unfairness,  together  with  endless  friction,  complications,  and 
perhaps  official  interference.  One  failure  tends  to  beget 
others,  and  the  repetition  of  a  grade  is  the  first  step  to 
elimination   from   school   on   one   excuse   or  another.    The 

138 


rRO.MC/JKJNS  AND   PUPIL   PROGRESS  139 

consummate  waste  and  crown  of  dishonor  of  a  school  system 
is  the  pupils  it  cannot  hold,  for  elimination  from  school  does 
not  include  elimination  from  the  society  for  which  the  school 
was  established.  Sparta  avoided  a  burdensome  class  of  citi- 
zens, because  those  who  were  to  be  eliminated  from  educa- 
tion were  first  eliminated  from  the  state  b\-  being  abandoned 
to  the  wild  beasts.  Our  civilization  clings  desperately  to  the 
mere  existence  of  each  individual,  though  often  neglecting 
the  greater  duty  of  making  that  existence  worth  while  to 
the  individual  and  to  society. 

There  are  teachers  —  a  host  of  them  —  who  pride  them- 
selves that  they  head  a  certain  proportion  of  their  classes 
every  year  toward  elimination,  —  that  a  certain  part  of  their 
work  is  always  waste.  They  call  it  "thoroughness"  because 
they  "never  pass  more  than  eighty  per  cent  of  any  grade," 
whereas  thorojighncss  and  the  number  passing  have  abso- 
lutely nothing  to  do  with  each  other.  In  some  schools, 
traditions  would  damn  a  teacher  who  did  not  "fail"  some 
of  every  class.    (Note  the  transitive  use  of  the  verb  "fail.") 

The  evils  of  retardation  probably  cannot  be  wholly  avoided 
so  long  as  grading  s\'stems  are  nonficxible.  It  is,  then,  all 
the  more  necessary  to  inflict  the  evil  with  the  greatest  dis- 
cretion and  to  turn  back  only  those  who  certainly  cannot 
profit  by  continuing  longer  with  the  same  class.  When 
demotion  is  unavoidable,  it  is  all  important  to  have  the  sym- 
pathy of  the  child  and  of  his  parents,  and  thus  avoid  the 
most  serious  evils  arising  from  disappointment  and  lack  of 
confidence.  The  pjipil  should  feel  that  there  is  nothing 
arbitrary  or  accidental  in  the  decision  and  that  the  lower 
grade  is  just  the  place  where  he  can  profit  most.  This  is 
not  "  soft  pedagog)'  "  but  hard  sense,  for  the  factor  which 
contributes  most  to  his  next  Ncar's  work  and  to  his  ultimate 
success  is  his  attitude  toward  his  classification  and  toward 
his  teachers. 


I40  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

The  customary  agencies  for  determining  the  problem  of 
promotions  are  examinations,  tests,  written  work,  grades  on 
daily  recitation,  and  the  teacher's  judgment.  It  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  discuss  here  the  various  teaching  values  of  these 
devices.  Each  is  of  large  importance  in  pedagogical  econ- 
omy, but  our  task  here  is  to  weigh  them  as  criteria  by 
lohich  to  judge  the  fitness  of  the  doubtful  pupil  forpromotion. 

Examinations  as  basis  of  promotions.  The  formal  exam- 
ination, despite  its  educative  usefulness,  has  been  thoroughly 
discredited  as  a  sole  basis  of  promotion.  Let  us  summarize 
its  status  as  such. 

I .  It  is  not  a  reliable  measure  of  attainment.  Three  sources 
of  chance  enter  into  its  use ;  the  child's  physical  and  mental 
condition  at  the  time  of  the  examination,  the  scope  of  the 
particular  questions  asked,  and  the  different  standards  among 
teachers  or  of  the  same  teacher  at  different  times.  Every 
day  some  pupils  are  unable  to  do  themselves  justice,  while  at 
the  close  of  the  fatiguing  term,  with  all  the  strain  of  examina- 
tion conditions,  it  is  certain  that  several  members  of  almost 
any  class  will  be  in  no  shape  to  disclose  their  true  ability  on 
paper.  Out  of  perhaps  a  hundred  comprehensive  questions 
on  a  course,  usually  ten  are  asked.  It  is  possible  that  among 
several  children  of  a  grade  who  are  able  to  answer  just  the 
same  proportion  of  the  hundred  possible  questions,  one  might 
know  all  of  the  ten  actually  asked,  another  half  of  that  ten, 
and  another  none  at  all.  While  this  extreme  variation  is 
unlikely,  it  is  very  commonly  true  that  of  two  children  of 
equal  knowledge  and  ability,  one  gets  78  per  cent  on  a  given 
examination  —  and  passes;  the  other  73  per  cent  —  and  fails. 
A  like  difference  between  failing  and  passing  marks  may 
easily  be  due  to  the  condition  of  the  teacher  at  the  time  of 
grading.  It  may  arise  out  of  the  difference  between  the 
teacher's  mental  condition  when  starting  in  on  a  pile  of 
papers  at  eight  o'clock  p.m.,  and  when   finishing  them  at 


PROMOTIONS  AND  PUPIL   PROGRESS  141 

one  A.M.,  while  the  variations  due  to  the  condition  of  his 
digestion,  the  temper  of  the  superintendent  on  his  last  visit, 
or  to  the  more  intimate  affairs  of  the  teacher  will  make  a 
decided  difference  in  the  average  of  the  class.  An  investiga- 
tion made  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  showed  that  a 
large  number  of  high-school  teachers,  all  well  prepared  and 
teaching  practically  identical  courses,  conditions  being  as 
nearly  standardized  as  can  be  found  anywhere  in  this  coun- 
try, graded  the  same  identical  paper  -SW  the  way  from  54  per 
cent  to  96  per  cent,  with  the  majority  grading  close  around 
the  passing  mark,  about  as  many  "failing"  as  "passing" 
the  paper. 

2.  So  far  as  the  formal  examination  does  test  anything,  it 
tests  appearances  rather  than  real  attainments,  verbal  memory 
rather  than  more  useful  abilities,  the  crammed  knowledge  of 
the  examination  day  rather  than  the  abilities  which  will  be 
available  in  later  life. 

3.  It  has  a  pernicious  effect  on  a  pupil's  study  and  habits 
of  study.  It  puts  a  premium  on  neglecting  work  through 
the  term  and  on  cramming  just  before  examination.  It  re- 
wards skill  in  "spotting  the  teacher,"  "bluffing,"  memoriz- 
ing, and  other  temporary  makeshifts  rather  than-  on  a  true 
love  of  knowledge  and  desire  for  permanent  growth. 

4.  It  is  the  devil's  own  device  for  leading  pupils  into 
temptation.  Our  civilization  is  disgraced  by  our  putting  this 
premium  on  dishonesty.  We  have  had  to  build  around  it  a 
special  code  of  honor  to  meet  the  emergency.  Supposedly 
respectable  young  people  are  required  to  do  something  which 
is  parallel  to  being  required  to  sign  a  pledge  that  they  have 
not  stolen  anything  whenever  they  arc  left  alone  in  a 
neighbor's  house. 

5.  As  an  incentive  to  work,  it  fails  to  stimulate  those  who 
are  most  in  need  of  being  aroused,  while  the  oversensitive 
and  too  ambitious  are  affected  beyond  reason  or  profit. 


142  SCHOOL   EFFICIENCY 

6.  The  physical  strain  arising  from  examination  promo- 
tions has  brought  nervous  breakdown  and  even  death  to 
hundreds  of  the  most  ambitious  and  deserving  children. 
The  unspeakable  horror  and  pity  of  child  suicide  has  often 
been  chargeable  to  the  same  stuj^id  reciuirement. 

Examinations  held  monthly  instead  of  once  a  term  may 
have  the  advantage  of  decreasing  the  strain  at  any  one  time 
and  of  lessening  the  element  of  chance,  but  this  plan  multi- 
plies the  occasions  of  temptation,  strain,  and  interruption 
of  regular  work. 

Informal  tests.  Iiifoniial  and  uu expected  tests,  oral  or 
wTitten,  devised  to  disclose  specific  needs  to  the  pupil  as 
well  as  to  the  teacher  and  to  correct  the  teaching  process 
from  time  to  time,  besides  being  among  the  most  useful  of 
teaching  devices  are  invaluable  in  determining  the  actual 
abilities  of  the  pupil.  A  record  of  these  tests  would  be  a 
safe  basis  of  judging  what  the  pupil  could  do  at  the  time 
they  were  given.  But,  with  good  teaching,  it  should  be 
almost  certain  that  each  deficiency  disclosed  by  the  tests 
would,  by  the  very  fact  of  its  disclosure,  be  removed  before 
the  end  of  the  term.  The  tests  are  thus  better  records  of 
w^hat  the  pupils  have  done  than  of  what  they  can  do. 

Daily  grades.  The  last  objection  would  naturally  apply 
in  some  degree  to  the  use  of  daily  grades  as  a  measure  of 
fitness  for  promotion.  To  a  good  teacher  the  finding  of 
a  defect  in  recitation  means  its  remedy  in  instruction.  A 
numerical  record  of  daily  recitations,  too,  will  undoubtedly 
discriminate  in  faxor  of  that  t\-pe  of  cliildreii  who  have  assur- 
ance and  readiness  rather  than  those  of  slower  and  deeper 
thinking.  L'nder  many  teachers  daily  grades  put  a  heavy 
premium  on  "  bluffing."  The  very  keeping  of  such  records 
is  cumbersome,  interferes  with  the  teacher's  spontaneity 
and  enthusiasm,  and  forces  many  mechanical  qualities  into 
the  lesson.     Marking  up  at  the  close  of  the  lesson  instead 


PROMOTIOXS  AND   PUPIL   PROGRESS  143 

of  at  the  moment  merely  purchases  reduced  mechanism  at 
the  cost  of  reduced  accuracy  in  grading. 

Teacher's  judgment.  The  "  teacher's  judgment  "  is  advo- 
cated by  some  as  the  only  safe  criterion,  but  (i)  this  may 
mean  merely  the  teacher's  likes  and  dislikes,  or  (2)  granting 
impartiality,  it  subjects  the  teacher  to  charges  of  partiality, 
and  (3)  it  assumes  that  a  purely  subjective  judgment  should 
be  used  without  rather  than  with  the  objective  aids  which 
have  been  devised  expressly  to  guide  that  judgment.  Intelli- 
gent judgment  makes  use  of  all  the  facts  that  can  be  obtained. 
When  the  term  "  teacher's  judgment  "  is  used  to  exclude  all 
data  except  the  judgment  itself,  it  really  means  the  teacher's 
feeling,  impression,  or  prejudice. 

Combinations.  Other  plans  of  promotion  combine  two  or 
more  of  the  factors  mentioned  above  in  various  proportions, 
to  determine  the  vital  question  of  promotion  or  demotion. 
It  is  common  to  let  examinations,  tests,  and  teacher's  judg- 
ment each  count  one  third  ;  or  examinations  one  half,  and 
daily  grades  and  teacher's  opinion  one  fourth  each. 

Cooperative  classification.  A  very  successful  plan  is  to 
require  every  teacher  to  make  out  early  in  the  term  a  tenta- 
tive list  of  the  pupils  who  are  reasonably  sure  to  pass,  one 
of  those  who  will  probably  pass  if  their  standing  does  not 
fall  lower,  and  one  of  those  who  are  likely  to  fail  unless 
their  work  is  improved.  All  of  the  last  group,  and  anv  who 
may  fall  into  it  from  time  to  time,  are  specially  warned, 
stimulated,  and  strengthened  at  their  points  of  w-eakness. 
Parents  are  called  into  conference  and  everything  possible 
is  done  to  get  them  over  into  the  safe  list.  These  lists  are 
frequently  revised  during  the  term  in  conference  with  the 
principal.  The  uncertain  list  should  be  reduced  to  not 
more  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  class  by  the  end  of  the  term. 
The  hopeless  ones  will  have  been  put  back  where  they  can 
work  with  hope  and  profit  as  soon  as  the  impossibility  of 


144  SCHOOL  EFFICIKNC'V 

their  catching  up  is  conceded  by  all.  All  that  must  fail  have 
then  been  fully  warned,  have  been  given  every  guidance  and 
assistance,  and  are  fully  appreciative  of  both  the  necessity 
and  the  reason  for  their  failure  to  be  promoted. 

Principles  of  promotion.  l<\)ll()\ving  is  a  summar)'  of  prin- 
ciples that  should  guide  in  the  matter  of  promotion. 

1.  Promotion  shall  not  be  based  on  a  single  test  nor  a 
set  of  tests  given  at  a  single  time. 

2.  It  shall  not  be  dependent  on  a  single  sort  of  measure- 
ment however  often  applied. 

3.  It  shall  not  be  dependent  on  any  purely  quantitative 
or  mathematical  grade  or  combination  of  grades.  There  is 
no  100  per  cent  perfection  in  any  mental  trait  nor  is  there 
any  zero  point  to  be  found  among  school  children.  Still 
less  is  there  any  mathematical  point,  such  as  75  per  cent, 
which  marks  the  distinction  between  success  and  failure. 

4.  It  shall  be  a  gradual  process,  beginning  when  the 
year's  work  begins  and  based  on  every  task. 

5.  It  shall  be  a  cooperative  process  in  which  the  child 
is  consciously  participating.  Definite  standards  of  efficiency 
by  which  the  child  can  daily  judge  his  own  work  shall  be 
kept  before  him.  He  shall  be  required  to  criticize  constantly 
his  own  attainments,  discover  his  deficiencies,  and  record 
his  own  standing. 

6.  The  reports  to  parents,  as  discussed  later,  shall  be 
such  as  to  keep  them  fully  aware  of  the  probability  of 
advancement  and  the  means  of  avoiding  demotion.  No 
friction   should  ever  arise   from   ([uestions  of  i:)r()m()tion. 

7.  Such  can  and  should  be  the  spirit  of  the  school  and 
of  its  relations  to  jxirents  that  promotion  would  never  be 
thought  of  as  a  matter  of  favoritism.  Neither  teacher  nor 
pupil  should  regard  promoting  a  child  as  favoring  him  or  re- 
tarding him  as  a  point  on  whicli  there  could  be  a  difference 
of  desire  between  them. 


PROMOTIONS  AND   PUPIL  PROGRESS  145 

8.  It  is  not  the  teacher's  business  to  size  and  reject  but 
to  detect  and  to  demonstrate  to  the  pupil  his  deficiencies 
and  to  guide  him   in  remedying  them. 

A  teacher  who  cannot  locate  the  pupil's  difficulty  early 
in  the  year  and  plan  with  him  its  remedy,  who  does  not 
know  until  the  term  is  over  that  the  child's  work  is  not 
sufficient  for  his  promotion,  should  not  be  intmsted  with 
the  decision   of  the   matter. 

Pupil  participation.  Keeping  pupils  in  suspense  as  to 
their  promotion  is  an  objectionable  sort  of  incentive.  It 
induces  cramming  and  spasmodic  effort  rather  than  sus- 
tained work.  The  same  pressure  ma\-  be  used  and  its  good 
effects  made  habitual  by  means  of  flexible  grading  and  the 
pupil's  conscious  participation  in  his  own  classification. 
Reward  for  effort,  like  punishment  for  wrongdoing,  should 
be  so  sure  and  so  prompt  and  so  obviously  self-acting,  that, 
just  as  soon  as  a  child  has  done  his  duty  well,  he  should 
know  that  so  far  as  that  task  is  concerned  he  is  already 
promoted.  Whenever  a  task  has  been  slighted  he  should 
feel  that  sooner  or  later  it  will  inevitably  and  automatically 
retard  him  by  perfectly  natural  laws.  In  a  word,  the  rigid 
and  arbitrar\'  must  give  way  before  the  flexible  and  sympa- 
thetic, in  matters  of  grading  and  organization.  More  than 
any  other  change  in  management  this  will  remove  friction, 
ill  feeling,  injustice,  and  waste. 

Partial  promotions.  Xo  pupil  should  be  required  to  keep 
on  doing  something  he  does  not  need  to  do  in  order  to 
catch  up  in  something  he  does  need.  If  the  work  in  one 
subject  must  be  rej)eated,  there  must  be  provision  for  some 
means  of  his  utilizing  the  rest  of  his  time  at  something  in 
which  he  can  progress  and  keep  interested  or,  if  necessary, 
he  might  better  be  excused  from  school  during  that  sur- 
plus time.  A  mechanical,  lock-step  organization,  which  de- 
mands either  idleness  or  the  repeating  of  tasks  of  no  further 


146  SCHOOL   Kl'l 'ICIENCY 

educative  value,  is  absolutely  hostile  to  all  aims  and  conditions 
of  good  teaching. 

Conditions.  When  a  promotion  is  made  conditional  upon 
subsequent  work,  the  condition  should  be  tried  out  in  the 
upper  rather  than  the  lower  grade.  The  question  at  issue 
is  whether  the  child  can  do  the  work  of  the  higher  grade, 
which  obviously  cannot  be  tested  elsewhere.  In  case  the 
promotion  is  not  made  permanent,  the  pupil  has  lost 
nothing  new  b)'  his  absence  from  the  lower  grade  ;  but  if 
he  is  to  work  in  the  upper  grade  the  loss  of  the  few  days' 
trial  would  prove  irremediable  to  a  pupil  already  doubtful. 

Continuous  promoting.  Under  a  truly  flexible  scheme 
promotions  are  not  solely  from  grade  to  grade  nor  only  at 
stated  times,  but  daily  some  pupils  are  passed  up  on  an 
assigned  lesson  or  topic  while  others  are  held  back  for 
further  study  and  instruction.  When  chic  boy  can  add 
fractions  proficiently,  it  is  absurd  to  keep  him  learning  how 
to  add  them  because  slower  pupils  have  not  yet  mastered 
the  art.  Such  management  would  be  on  a  \x\v  with  keeping 
a  man  working  on  a  job  after  it  was  finished  because  his 
fellow  workmen  in  the  shop  had  not  completed  theirs.  In 
no  other  industrv  would  the  necessity  of  handling  the 
workers  in  classes  or  masses  be  offered  as  an  excuse  for 
keeping  one  laborer  on  a  task  after  he  had  finished  it  or 
leaving  the  work  of  another  uncompleted  because  he  was 
slow.  Every  man  must  have  some  duty  to  work  at,  or  he 
should  "'  knock  off."  The  standards  of  efiicient  school  man- 
agement need  not  be  inferior  in  this  respect.  The  segre- 
gation of  the  pupils  of  a  given  group  according  to  their  indi- 
vidual needs  may  not  be  practicable  for  lectures,  demonstra- 
tions, and  development  lessons,  but  it  certainly  is  practicable 
for  study,  drills,  exercises,  and  j)ractice  j)rob]ems. 

Efficiency  advancement.  In  jK'nmanship  there  should  be 
a  standard   of  excellence  for  each  grade,  such  as  is  easily 


PROMOTIONS  AND    PUPIL   PROGRESS  147 

afforded  by  the  Ayres  scale,  and  an\'  pupil  whose  written 
work  outside  of  the  wntinjr  class  never  falls  below  that 
standard  should  not  be  required  to  take  the  writing  drills. 
At  any  time  when  his  regular  work  falls  b^low  the  standard 
or  fails  to  show  a  natural  and  continuous  growth  in  excel- 
lence, he  should  be  automatically  returned  to  the  drill  class. 
By  this  means  a  few  pupils  may  require  little  more  than 
occasional  corrective  suggestions  in  writing  after  they  leave 
the  primary  grades.  With  good  standards  in  the  school  and 
the  habit  of  doing  one's  best  all  the  time,  daily  work  should 
give  an  abundance  of  penmanship  training  of  a  much  more 
effective  sort  than  the  detached  writing  drill.  For  some 
pupils,  writing  drills  during  a  few  weeks  each  year  will  suf- 
fice, whereas  others  require  a  great  deal  of  special  training 
to  get  the  necessary  muscular  coordination.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  year  writing  classes  should  be  small  or  entirely 
lacking,  but  standards  of  writing  in  daily  exercises  very 
high.  Such  an  automatic  promotion  out  of  a  drill  class 
serves  as  an  incentive  to  do  all  one's  writing  well,  which 
is  the  only  writing  excellence  worth  seeking.  It  secures 
better  penmanship  than  constant  drilling  can  ;  it  avoids  the 
very  real  danger  of  "overtraining";  it  fixes  attention  of 
pupil  and  teacher  upon  individual  needs  ;  and  it  affords  a 
very  great  economy  in  time. 

Spelling  drills  might  well  be  organized  on  the  same  basis. 
The  essence  of  good  spelling  is  not  a  memory  stocked  like 
a  dictionary.  It  is  the  habit  of  al:>.<avs  spelling  correctly 
words  that  one  already  knows  and  never  using  a  new 
word  without  finding  out  how  to  sjx'll  it.  The  "  incidental 
method  "  of  teaching  spelling  depends  on  this  faithful  per- 
sistence for  its  success.  By  having  the  drills  only  for  those 
who  need  them  and  only  to  the  extent  that  they  need  them, 
while  others  are  automatically  excused  from  the  spelling 
class   so   long  as   they  spell   correctly   in   all   their   written 


I4S  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

work,  all  the  economies  and  increased  efificiency  of  the 
incidental  method  are  attained,  hut  without  the  risk  of 
leaving  some  who  do  not  respond  to  that  method  unable 
to  spell. 

Scientific  tests  and  scales.  Rapid  progress  is  being  made 
at  the  present  time  in  the  development  of  scientific  meas- 
ures of  efficiency  in  the  more  fundamental  school  abilities. 
Various  tests  in  arithmetic,  spelling,  writing,  and  possibly 
some  in  other  subjects  have  sufficiently  passed  the  experi- 
mental stage  to  be  used  in  a  practical  way,  but  thus  far 
they  are  adapted  rather  to  measuring  schools  and  teachers 
than  to  determining  the  fitness  of  indi\idual  pupils  for  pro- 
motion. Much  is  to  be  hoped  for  from  progress  in  this 
direction,  particularly  in  demonstrating  to  the  teachers  of 
a  system  or  the  pupils  of  a  school  the  need  of  advancing 
their  standards  of  proficiency.  Principals,  at  least,  should  be 
familiar  with  the  use  of  these  tests. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  What  custom  prevails  regarding  the  percentage  of  pupils 
that  are  promoted  in  your  school  ?  How  does  this  vary  from 
grade  to  grade  or  department  to  department.-'  Inquire  among 
the  teachers  separately  as  to  what  they  regard  as  the  ideal 
practice. 

2.  Among  retarded  pupils  how  many  are  doing  better  work 
the  second  year  in  a  grade  than  tlie\-  did  the  first  year  ? 

3.  Find  out  by  frank  conferences  with  students  and  former 
students  what  effects  examinations  had  upon  the  regularity  of 
study ;  uj^on  the  quality  of  study.  Do  examinations  seem  to 
make  more  for  consistent  or  for  spasmodic  study  ?  What  con- 
clusion would  you  draw  from  a  statement  that  examinations  make 
some  pupils  study  who  would  not  study  without  them  ? 

4.  What  evidence  have  you  that  examinations  have  had  a  good 
or  bad  moral  influence  .'' 


PROMOTIONS  AND   PUPIL  PROGRESS  149 

5.  What  evidence  is  there  of  physiail  injury  ?  Would  injury 
occur  if  the  examinations  were  not  used  for  promotion  purposes  ? 

6.  Determine  by  observation  what  effect  the  marking  of  each 
answer  at  the  time  has  upon  the  force  and  enthusiasm  of  an 
oral  recitation. 

7.  What  is  the  practice  at  your  school  regarding  the  retarda- 
tion of  a  pupil  for  deficiency  in  one  or  two  subjects  ?  Determine 
by  observation  and  inquiry  what  effect  this  practice  has  upon 
the  retarded  pupil's  progress  in  the  deficient  subjects ;  in  the 
other  subjects. 

8.  Study  the  work  of  some  class  with  a  view  to  determining 
how  much  of  the  time  pupils  are  spending  on  work  they  do  not 
need  to  do ;  how  much  on  trying  to  do  what  the\'  cannot  do. 
What  is  the  effect  of  this  sort  of  work  upon  their  study  habits .'' 

READINGS 

AvRES.    Laggards  in  Our  Schools. 

Chanxellor.    Class  Teaching  and  Management,  chaps,  iii.  vii. 

CoLGKOVE.    The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chap.  xi. 

DuTTON.    School  Management,  p.  84. 

JuDD.    Measuring  the  Work  of  the  Public  Schools.    Cleveland  School 

Survey. 
McMuRUV.    Elementary  School  Standards. 
Seeley.    New  School  Management,  chaps,  xiv,  xv. 
Seeuley.    The  Country  School,  chap.  xii. 
Starch.    Educational  Measurements. 

Stkavkr.    a  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  chap.  xix. 
Stkavkr  and  Tiiok.vdikk.    Educational  Administradon,  chaps,  i,  iv. 
White.    Art  of  Teaching,  chaps,  xiii,  xiv. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

MARKING   SYSTEMS 

Frequency.  In  kcc])ii"i<;  the  record  of  pupils'  work 
there  is  wide  diversity  of  practice.  Some  teachers  labo- 
riously record  a  grade  for  every  recitation  made,  every 
paper  handed  in,  and  every  test  and  examination.  Others 
estimate  a  grade  weekly.  Quite  common  is  the  custom  of 
grading  pupils  at  the  end  of  every  month  with  or  without 
the  aid  of  written  tests  or  examinations.  Again,  the  dail\-, 
weekly,  or  occasional  grades  may  be  combined  to  make  up 
the  monthly  grade.  Term  grades  are  usually  made  up  1)\- 
combining  these  monthly  or  more  frequent  markings  with 
the  examination  standing.  The  frequency  of  this  grading 
may  be  a  matter  of  individual  choice,  and  different  tempera- 
ments seem  to  work  best  under  different  plans,  but  in  some 
rigid  systems  every  detail  of  the  grading  plan  is  prescribed. 

Numerical  grades.  A  "  per-cent  method"  of  grading  is 
a  frequent  concomitant  of  mechanical  organization.  Daily 
recitations  are  graded  on  a  scale  of  lo,  and  examinations 
on  a  scale  of  lOO.  The  obvious  difficulty  of  grading 
a  daily  recitation  when  different  c|uestions  demand  utterly 
different  kinds  and  quantities  of  thought  to  answer,  has 
tended  to  simplify  the  daily  marking  to  a  scale  of  5  or  3. 
We  have  already  noted  the  difficulty  in  determining  the 
significance  of  numerical  grades.  Since  the  child's  attain- 
ment in  any  knowledge  or  power  of  sufficient  consequence 
to  be  recorded  is  necessarily  incomplete  and  could  not  be 
regarded  as  perfection,  what  is  the  loo-per-cent  ideal  ? 
What   is   the    zero    point   of    no    knowledge    at   all  .-*    Does 

150 


MARKING   SYSTEMS  151 

50  per  cent  mean  half  knowing  a  lesson,  knowing  half 
a  lesson,  knowing  half  as  much  as  the  teacher  knows, 
half  as  much  as  the  text,  half  what  the  pupil  ought  to 
know,  or  half  what  he  could  know  ?  Perhaps  the  usual 
opinion  would  be  that  100  per  cent  means  that  the  pupil 
has  done  the  task  assigned  as  well  as  could  be  expected 
of  him  ;  zero  means  that  he  has  done  nothing  worth  while  ; 
50  per  cent,  that  he  has  done  half  the  work  assigned  ;  and 
75,  or  a  pass  mark,  that  he  has  done  just  as  little  as  he 
should  be  allowed  to  get  away  with  and  not  be  required 
to  do  the  work  over  again.  These  grades  are  almost  uni- 
versally given  for  absolute  results,  not  for  educative  values 
nor  yet  for  effort.  One  gets  90  per  cent  with  practically 
no  effort  and  hence  no  educative  advantage  to  himself, 
while  another  gets  50  per  cent  after  plodding  for  hours 
in  conscientious  effort  to  accomplish  the  task.  We  have 
already  indicated  the  total  unreliability  of  such  marks,  even 
for  indicating  the  value  of  what  has  been  written  on  an 
examination  paper.  That  they  utterly  fail  to  indicate  actual 
pupil-ability  is  easily  demonstrated. 

At  best  we  are  setting  up  a  mathematical  standard  of 
measuring  something,  we  scarcely  know  what,  which  is 
certainly  not  capable  of  any  such  nice  distinctions.  We 
have  persuaded  the  pupils  and  the  public  and  ourselves 
to  believe  in  something  that  has  no  foundation  but  tradi- 
tion. It  is  just  on  a  par  with  the  divine  right  and  rectitude 
of  royalty  and  the  direct  curative  power  of  drugs.  All 
are  beautifully  simple,  direct,  easy-to-follow  ideas  —  the 
kind  people  like  to  be  humbugged  with.  Mow  simple  life 
and  teaching  would  be  were  such  things  true  —  also  how 
static,  mechanical,  and  uninspiring !  Such  views  of  life  have 
the  common  fault  that  they  stand  squarely  in  the  way  of 
the  development  of  a  science,  whether  of  government, 
of  medicine,  or  of  teaching. 


152  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Modern  scientific  measurement  of  mental  and  social 
traits  is  an  utterly  different  matter  from  that  of  which 
we  are  speaking.  Such  measurements  deal  with  but  a 
single  trait  at  a  time,  while  school  grades  always  do  and 
should  deal  with  complicated  abilities.  The  former  deal 
with  averages  of  groups,  or  of  oft-repeated  identical  tests, 
or  with  relative  rankings,  and  are  as  much  concerned 
with  sources  and  amounts  of  error  as  with  the  average 
or  mean  itself. 

Qualitative  terms.  Where  the  quantitative  grading  has 
been  discarded,  often  a  qualitative  series  of  terms  has 
been  substituted.  A  typical  series  would  run :  excellent, 
very  good,  good,  fair,  poor,  and  \'ery  poor.  Originally 
merely  descriptive,  these  innocent  terms  soon  acquired  an 
arbitrary  significance.  They  were  explained  in  terms  of  the 
inexplicable.  Rules  were  promulgated  to  some  such  effect 
as  this:  Excellent  means  from  95  to  100  per  cent,  very 
good  means  from  85  to  95  per  cent,  good  means  from  75 
to  85  per  cent,  etc.  Seventy-five  still  being,  perhaps,  the 
passing  mark,  it  is  often  true  that  "fair"  means  not  fit  to 
pass,  and  "  good  "  means  just  good  enough  to  avoid  being 
sent  back.  The  situation  is  quite  analogous  to  the  grading 
of  butter  in  which  the  poorest  marketable  was  "'  fancy " 
and  good  butter  was  "  XXXX,"  or  extra  to  the  fourth 
degree.  Inevitabl\-  such  descriptive  grading  marks  will  lose 
their  meaning. 

Letters.  The  next  step  forward  was  to  adopt  marks 
which  in  themselves  are  meaningless,  as  A,  B,  C,  1),;  i)ut 
these  likewise  were  soon  arbitrarily  translated  into  per  cents, 
or  for  emphasis  teachers  were  prone  to  give  AA  or  possibly 
l^'F  —  whatever  these  could  precisely  mean. 

If  the  grading  is  to  be  done  in  i)er  cents,  there  is  not 
much  use  in  translating  them  into  some  other  symbols  and 
then  explaining    these   b\'  a   convenient  note  on  the  report 


MARKING  SYSTEMS  153 

so  that  they  may  readily  be  translated  back  into  the  per 
cents.  It  is  true  that  a  "  C  "  or  a  "  good  "  does  not  make 
pretense  of  a  distinction  between  T"]  per  cent  and  79  per 
cent  or  82  per  cent,  but  it  does  make  a  fatal  barrier 
between  74  per  cent  and  75  per  cent. 

Departmental  variations.  Further  indication  of  the  unre- 
liability of  all  these  systems  of  grading  —  word,  figure,  or 
letter  —  are  evidenced  by  the  grading  of  different  teachers 
on  the  same  group  of  children.  In  every  high  school,  col- 
lege, or  other  institution  where  departmental  teaching  pre- 
vails nothing  is  better  established  than  that  some  teachers 
are  chronically  severe  markers  while  others  are  notoriously 
easy.  One  will  characteristically,  year  after  year,  report 
about  thirty  per  cent  of  every  class  A's  and  perhaps  twenty 
per  cent  C's ;  while  another  dealing  with  the  same  identical 
pupils  will  perhaps  run  about  five  per  cent  A's  and  seventy 
per  cent  graded  C  or  lower.  The  high  grades  of  the  one 
may  be  variously  interpreted  as  signs  of  thorough  teaching 
or  of  slack  examining  ;  and  the  low  grades  of  another  as  an 
indication  of  poor  teaching  or  of  severe  testing.  At  any 
rate,  the  low-marking  disposition  has  usually  been  the  most 
assertive  and  has  assumed  the  "  thoroughness  "  pose,  over- 
looking the  fact  that  thoroughness  in  teaching  a  course 
should  show  a  very  high  final  grading. 

Normal  distribution.  The  demonstrable  lack  of  any  fixed 
relation  between  a  mark  and  the  ability  which  it  is  supposed 
to  measure  has  led  students  of  scientific  measurements  to 
conclude  that  the  only  reliable  grade  is  an  approximate 
relative  rankijiq-.  (^ne  cannot  sav  how  much  ahilit\'  of  a 
certain  sort  a  pupil  may  have,  but  one  can  tell  with  reason- 
able accuracy  whether  he  has  more  or  less  than  most  of  his 
group,  and  usually  whether  he  has  more  or  less  than  any 
other  given  individual.  It  is  also  true  that  in  anv  trait  or 
ability  there  will  be  in  every  group  not  specially  selected 


154  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

a  tiornial  distribiitioii  ;  tliat  is,  there  will  be  very  few  of 
very  high  ability,  more  of  medium  high,  a  large  proportion 
of  average  ability,  and  a  similar  tapering  off  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  curve.  Every  school  class  is.  with  reference  to 
the  work  of  that  grade,  a  normal  group.  Whatever  is  the 
average  or  mean  ability  of  the  class,  the  majority  will  cluster 
closely  around  it.  The  farther  we  go  above  or  below  that 
mean,  the  fewer  individuals  will  be  found.  There  is  always 
an  average  or  mean  attainment  which  is  to  be  expected  of 
any  class  and  for  which  the  class  itself  is  not  responsible. 
The  teacher  may  pitch  the  requirements  too  high  or  too 
low  for  the  preparation  of  the  grade.  His  method  may 
result  in  a  few  things  being  taught  very  thoroughly  or  many 
things  very  poorly,  or  possibly  many  things  well  or  a  few 
things  poorly.  In  any  case,  an  examination  given  by  the 
teacher  himself  may  result  in  high  grades  or  low  ones, 
absolutely  without  relation  to  the  educative  value  of  his 
course.  This  "  personal  equation  "  may  involve  no  insin- 
cerity or  favoritism.  However  the  grades  may  be  given, 
the  fact  always  is  that  a  few  pupils  in  the  class  are  far 
better  than  the  average,  the  number  increasing  toward  the 
average  and  decreasing  in  the  same  general  ratio  to  the 
one  or  two  worst  ones.  Certain  conditions  may  "  skew " 
this  curve  a  little  either  way  ;  for  example,  the  instruction 
might  be  of  such  a  sort  that  many  would  reach  a  certain 
proficiency  and  none  could  possibly  exceed  it,  or  by  extra  care 
with  the  backward  ones  the  poorest  might  be  brought  to  a 
minimum  efficiency  which  is  close  to  the  average  attainment. 
Relative  ranking.  It  has  therefore  been  found  that  the 
fairest  and  tiie  only  reliable  way  to  grade  is  simply  to  make 
an  arbitrary  division  of  the  class  approximating  the  normal  dis- 
tribution curve  and  require  each  teacher  to  rank  a  fixed  pro- 
portion of  the  class  in  each  of  these  divisions.  I'V)r  instance, 
in  any  class  there  will  be  found  5  to  lo  per  cent  who  are 


MARKING  SYSTEMS  155 

excellent  as  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  class  ;  about  twice 
as  many  who  are  very  good  ;  40  or  50  per  cent  who  are 
somewhere  around  the  average  ;  about  as  many  are  poor  as 
are  very  good  ;  and  as  many  are  very  poor  as  are  excellent. 
The  grades  of  every  teacher  should  show  just  such  a  distribu- 
tion, whatever  the  scope  of  the  marks  he  uses.  This  normal 
distribution  curve  is  more  nearly  the  mathematically  exact 
truth  than  any  other  grading  of  their  work  or  papers  could  be. 
'J^his  is  the  safest  measurement  that  we  have  any  means  of 
substantiating.  When  it  has  been  decided  how  many  indi- 
viduals shall  be  graded  "  A  "  or  "  excellent"  in  a  given  class 
it  is  not  hard  to  select  them,  and  there  is  little  more  difficulty 
in  placing  the  others  in  the  required  groups.  We  cannot 
presume  to  state  how  much  ability  a  pupil  has  nor  hoiv 
valuable  his  work  has  been,  but  we  can  state  his  relative 
standing  in  the  class  with  reasonable  accuracy. 

A  very  satisfactory  plan  and  one  which  has  proved  easy 
to  use  is  to  let  A  mean  "one  of  the  best  quarter  of  the 
class  " ;  let  B  mean  "  one  of  the  second  best  quarter"  ;  let  C 
mean  all  the  others  who  have  done  a  passing  quality  of 
work  ;  and  let  D  mean  that  the  work  so  marked  is  not  ac- 
ceptable or  up  to  passing  requirements.  It  should  not  be  the 
policy  of  the  school  arbitrarily  to  require  any  to  fail ;  there- 
fore abundant  notice,  special  instruction,  and  frequent  re- 
classification should  eliminate  U's  from  the  final  marks. 
Any  other  fixed  meaning  to  these  grades,  so  long  as  it 
is  clearly  defined  in  terms  of  class  ranking,  is  permis- 
sible. Some  school  officials  prefer  only  two  grades  on  work 
that  is  passed.  In  this  case  it  is  important  only  to  indicate 
what  proportion  of  the  class  must  receive  A  and  what 
proportion  must  receive  B.  Others  insist  on  allowing  no 
other  distinction  than  "acceptable"  or  "unacceptable"  to 
be  applied  to  any  recitation,  examination,  or  final  grade. 
Whether  finer  distinctions   than   these  have   any  reliability 


156  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

when  converted  into  measures  of  the  abihties  needed  in  Ufe 
may  be  a  question  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  find  any  educative 
value  in  making  them. 

Awarding  honors  by  chance.  Our  tradition-trodden  peda- 
gogue repHes  tiiat  we  need  these  fine  distinctions  as  a  basis 
of  awarding  honors  and  prizes  if  not  for  promotion.  One 
high-school  graduate  is  awarded  a  medal  or  the  honor  of 
being  valedictorian  of  the  class  on  the  ground  of  having 
made  a  general  average  of  97  {rj  per  cent  as  opposed  to 
another's  9/45  per  cent!  Can  such  things  be?  and  educa- 
tion purporting  to  be  a  science  !  My  reader  will  bear  me 
out  that  such  things  are  and  that  they  are  accepted  seri- 
ously by  the  pupils,  by  the  parents,  and  by  the  teachers. 
Between  these  two  pupils  there  may  be  a  difference  of  i  per 
cent  or  of  40  per  cent  of  effectixe  ability  in  favor  of  either 
one.  How  infinitely  fairer  to  toss  a  coin  for  the  honor,  if 
there  be  but  one  to  award,  and  let  it  be  known  that  both 
deserve  it  —  equally,  so  far  as  anyone  knows  ! 

Instructive  grading.  That  marks  of  any  sort,  numerical 
or  otherwise,  do  in  a  general  way  indicate  the  relative  abilities 
and  attainments  of  the  children,  no  one  doubts ;  but  the 
evidence  we  have  for  tliis  belief  is  what  we  know  without 
the  marks.  Why  do  we  need  so  cumbersome  a  means  of 
telling  what  we  already  know  ?  That  the\'  do  serve,  in  a 
manner,  as  an  incentive  is  equally  obvious,  liut  it  is  also 
evident  that  they  commonly  stimulate  those  who  least  need 
it  and  are  of  no  effect  on  those  who  need  it  most.  As  reward 
for  effort,  it  has  been  indicated  that  they  are  more  likely  to 
reward  inherited  brilliancy  than  deserving  effort.  By  so 
doing  they  as  often  tend  to  make  the  favored  ones  idle 
and  the  unfortunate  ones  discouraged  as  they  accomplish 
the  intended  spurring  u])  of  the  lazy  ones.  As  a  conven- 
ience to  the  teacher  in  determining  the  relative  ranking  of 
pupils  or  in  keeping   memoranda  for  his  own  use,  any  of 


MARKING   SYSTEMS  157 

these  marking  schemes  may  be  of  considerable  value.  When- 
ever mere  valuing  of  the  pupil's  work  by  this  means  inter- 
feres with  the  pointing  out  and  remedying  of  defects,  the 
marking  is  doing  more  harm  than  good.  Gmding  should 
be  more  instructive  ajid  less  judicial.  It  is  of  little  conse- 
quence to  the  pupil  or  anyone  else  w^hether  he  gets  a 
"  perfectly  fair  mark  "  or  any  mark  at  all,  but  it  is  vitally 
important  that  he  be  helped  to  remedy  each  fault  as  eco- 
nomically and  as  permanently  as  possible.  Pupils  and 
parents  may  demand  exact  grades,  but  pupils  and  parents 
take  their  cue  from  the  customs  of  the  school.  When  we 
have  with  sufficient  clearness  laid  our  emphasis  upon  the 
correcting  of  specific  faults  and  the  developing  of  definite 
abilities  and  have  reorganized  our  school  traditions  accord- 
ingly, there  will  be  the  same  demand  for  these  on  the  part 
of  parents.  Let  us  not  be  anxious  either  about  the  incentive. 
"'  Accurate  in  all  fundamentals  and  in  the  use  of  the 
decimal  point  "  is  just  as  stimulating  and  far  more  exact  a 
grade  than  "  B  plus"  or  "  <^\'\  per  cent." 

PROBLEMS 

1.  By  inquiry  among  several  teachers  find  what  proportion  of 
them  in  grading  a  paper  mark  down  for  spelling,  punctuation, 
penmanship,  English,  or  general  appearance. 

2.  Select  a  few  average  papers  on  different  subjects  and  have 
each  of  them  graded  by  several  different  teachers.  Give  no  instruc- 
tions except  that  each  is  to  grade  as  if  the  paper  were  from  his 
own  class  and  no  mark  is  to  be  made  on  the  paper.  VVhat  do 
these  marks  indicate  as  to  the  absolute  value  of  the  grading  ? 

3.  Have  several  teachers  who  use  letters  or  words  for  grading 
indicate  exactly  what  the\'  mean  h\  each  grade  given.  (.Assuming 
that  the  meaning  of  the  term  has  not  Ix'cn  specified  by  regulation.) 

4.-  Tabulate  the  grades  given  in  any  one  examination  or  in  any 
year  by  the  several  instructors  in  any  school  conducted  on  the 


158  SCHOOL  KFFICIKNCY 

departmental  plan.    Graph  these  results  for  com]:)arison.    Compare 
the  marks  oi  different  instruetors  for  the  same  grouj)  of  pupils. 

5.    Bv  inquiry  among  students,  determine  which  instructors  are 
regarded  as  ''  hard  "  and  which  as  "  easy  markers." 

READINGS 

Baglev.    Classroom  Management,  p.  24S. 

Chan'CELLOR.    Class  Teaching  and  Management,  chaps,  iii,  viii. 

DUTTOX.    School  Management,  p.  100. 

Salisbury.    School  Management,  p.  188. 

Seelev.    a  New  School  Management,  chap.  xiii. 

Strayer'AXD  Norsworthv.    How  to  Teach,  chap.  xv. 

White.    School  Management,  pp.  154-158. 


CHAPTER  XV 

REPORTS  TO  PARENTS 

Effects  of  the  usual  type  of  report.  It  is  a  common  cus- 
tom to  send  reports  of  the  pupil's  progress  to  parents  at 
regular  intervals,  usually  monthly.  These  ordinarily  state 
the  absences,  times  tardy,  and  give  the  recorded  grade  on 
"  deportment "  and  on  each  subject  studied.  Grades  are 
given  in  per  cents  or  some  of  the  other  symbols  already 
described  which  are  often  translated  into  per  cents  by  an 
explanatory  statement.  .So  frequent  was  it  for  children  who 
had  unfavorable  records  to  intercept  these  reports,  even 
though  sent  by  mail,  that  cards  or  booklets  to  be  signed 
by  the  parent  and  returned  to  the  teacher  have  come  into 
general  use.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  pupil  even  to  forge 
the  parent's  signature  to  these.  Naturally  the  child  who 
tampers  with  his  reports  is  the  one  most  in  need  of  a  full 
understanding  between  teacher  and  parent  as  to  his  progress. 

Parents  receiving  these  typical  reports  have  no  guidance 
as  to  the  treatment  which  should  be  given  the  child.  Most 
of  them  regard  the  report  merely  as  a  form  of  expressing 
approval  or  disapproval  of  the  child.  If  the  grades  are  low, 
the  more  interested  parent  may  give  the  child  a  scolding, 
or  force  him  to  longer  hours  of  home  study,  even  though 
too  long  hours  of  misdirected  study  may  be  the  chief  cause 
of  the  low  grades.  Two  children  of  the  same  family  have 
been  known  to  bring  Ikmiic  reports  on  the  same  dav,  one 
with  the  mark  of  87  per  cent  in  I-Jiglish,  the  other  of 
92  per  cent  in  the  same  subject.  But  the  Sy  per  cent  was 
the  highest  mark  given  in  the  one  class,  while  the  92  per 

»59 


i6o  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

cent  was  below  the  average  in  the  other,  and  the  Sy  per 
cent  represented  much  more  and  better  work  than  did  the 
92  per  cent.  The  conscientious  parents,  not  having  the  other 
grades  given  in  the  two  classes  before  them,  reproved  the 
87  per  cent  pupil  but  rewarded  the  other  and  held  him  up 
as  a  good  example.  This  extreme  case  indicates  how  little 
the  reports  actually  tell  of  the  pupils'  progress. 

Too  familiar  to  need  discussion  is  the  pathetic  sight  of 
groups  of  children  comparing  grades  on  tlie  first  of  the 
month  :  the  pupil  who  has  got  79  per  cent  crowing  over 
another  who  has  got  y6  per  cent  by  means  of  twice  as 
much  deserving  effort  and  educative  painstaking.  Children 
who  have  grown  up  through  long  years  of  judging  and 
being  judged  in  terms  of  these  figures  that  have  so  little 
relation  to  any  genuine  measure  of  worth  are  in  proper 
training  for  the  "'  dementia  Americana,"  which  is  said 
to  measure  all  human  worth  in  terms  of  the  bank  account, 
however  attained. 

What  the  report  should  do.  The  report  on  the  pupil  should 
give  genuinely  intelligible  information  by  which  the  parent 
may  know  not  only  how  the  pupil  stands  as  compared  to 
what  is  expected  of  him  and  what  is  realized  by  the  class 
as  a  whole,  but  specific  information  as  to  the  nature  of  his 
weakness  and  the  way  in  which  the  parent  may  cooperate 
for  the  child's  better  progress.  It  should  make  as  clear  as 
possible  what  the  teacher's  plans  and  efforts  for  the  child 
are.  It  should  bring  about  a  more  sympathetic  and  cordial 
relation  between  the  parent  and  the  school.  It  should  ex- 
press the  teacher's  interest  in  the  child  and  show  his  desire 
to  do  something  more  than  the  routine  and  perfunctory 
duties  of  the  classroom.  It  should  have  a  personal  char- 
acter. It  should  afford  a  basis  of  better  understanding  be- 
tween the  child  and  parent  and  a  jDractical  starting  point 
foi    effect i\e  cooperation. 


REPORTS  TO  PARENTS  l6l 

A  satisfactory  form.  A  form  of  report  which  seems  to 
have  accomplished  these  aims  in  actual  use  is  prefaced  by 
the  following  explanatory  statement : 

To  Parents : 

This  report  is  sent  you  with  a  view  to  giving  a  clear  statement 
of  the  pupil's  progress,  his  standing  in  his  classes,  and  his  individual 
needs. 

The  pupil  has  been  asked  to  read  the  report  and  discuss  with 
the  teacher  anything  that  is  not  clear  to  him. 

We  believe  that  when  the  pupil,  his  parents,  and  his  teacher 
thoroughly  understand  each  other  and  join  in  studying  the  pupil's 
needs  they  will  be  able  to  secure  the  most  favorable  conditions 
practicable  for  his  advancement  and  development. 

Please  remember  always  that  wc  have  no  other  aim  than  the 
pupil's  progress  in  the  kind  of  education  that  seems  most  worth 
while,  that  we  are  glad  to  talk  over  our  plans  and  policies  with  you, 
and  that  we  welcome  your  friendly  suggestions  and  cooperation. 

The  letters  following  the  name  of  a  subject  indicate  the  teacher's 
judgment  as  to  the  pupil's  standing  compared  with  the  other  mem- 
bers of  that  class :  A  means  that  in  this  subject  he  stands  in  the 
best  quarter  of  the  class ;  B  means  that  he  is  in  the  next  best 
quarter  —  above  the  average  but  not  among  the  best ;  C  means 
that  he  is  doing  only  average  work  with  a  reasonable  prospect  of 
passing  up  with  his  grade ;  I)  means  that  the  work  is  poor  and  if 
not  improved  he  will  probably  be  unable  to  continue  the  work  with 
the  grade.  Every  I)  should  have  the  combined  attention  of  the 
teacher,  parents,  and  pupil,  to  remedy  the  difficulty  which  causes  it. 

Note  especially  the  grades  on  I  )cportment  and  Application.  One 
is  not  alwa)'s  at  fault  because  his  grades  in  studies  are  low,  but  his 
CONDUCT  and  his  liFFoR  r  are  within  his  control.  These  show  how 
he  is  TRY  I  NO  and  indicate  more  than  all  other  grades  what  his 
final  success  in  school  and  in  life  will  be. 

Watch  the  reports  of  Tardiness  and  Absences.  We  cannot 
teach  children  if  they  are  not  at  school.  Everv  case  of  irregularity 
in  prompt  attendance  is  a  serious  loss  to  the  child  and  an  interrup- 
tion to  his  class.  This  is  your  responsibility.  Please  have  him  on 
time  every  day. 


l62  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Please  note  carefull)-  all  criticisms  and  requests  of  the  teacher 
and  write  on  the  opposite  page  any  questions  you  may  desire  to 
ask,  any  suggestions  that  you  think  would  be  helpful,  and  say  what 
steps  we  may  count  on  your  taking  toward  carrying  out  the 
suggestions  of  the  teacher  for  the  good  of  the  child. 

Its  use.  This  is  followed  by  the  grades  according  to  the 
plan  indicated,  and  there  is  abundant  space  for  comment  by 
the  teacher  and  for  the  parent's  responses.  The  following  in- 
structions were  given  the  teachers  as  to  the  use  of  the  reports  : 

INSTRUCTIONS    FOR   USING   THK    FUFILS" 
MONTHLY    REPORTS 

Pupils  in  Group  A  [advanced  group  in  flexible  system]  of  any 
grade  will  ordinarily  be  marked  A  or  B.  Every  "  D  "  is  to  be  a 
matter  of  investigation  and  conference  with  the  principal  and  must 
be  followed  up  from  month  to  month  with  further  reports  until  the 
defect  has  been  remedied  as  far  as  possible.  The  "  D  "  must  be 
a  decided  stimulus,  though  not  a  whip.  It  should  serve  definitely 
as  a  warning  and  be  made  the  subject  of  consultation  with  the 
pupil  so  that  no  pupil  or  parent  will  have  the  slightest  surprise  in 
case  of  retardation. 

Seek  to  make  some  kindly  and  helpful  comment  on  every  report. 
Encouragement,  discreet  praise,  warnings,  inciuiries  as  to  home 
situations  that  affect  school  work,  are  all  in  order,  but  most  impor- 
tant are  practical  suggestions  looking  to  more  effective  progress. 
Avoid  general  criticisms  or  vague  suggestions.  Most  parents  do  not 
know  how  to  help  children  wisely.  If  }'0u  wish  their  cooperation, 
indicate  exactly  how  it  is  to  be  done. 

Let  your  comments  show  that  "  I)  "  means  danger.  When  a 
pupil  makes  "  D  "  it  is  your  business  to  know  the  exact  nature  of 
his  trouble  and  to  be  able  to  make  it  pretty  clear  to  both  him  and 
his  parents.  Call  the  principal's  attention  to  every  "  D  "  and  your 
comment  on  it  before  the  report  goes  out. 

Do  not  allow  comments  to  become  mechanical  or  stereotyped. 
Let  them  breathe  a  spirit  of  cooperation  and  genuine  personal 


REPORTS  TO   PARENTS  163 

interest.  Make  them  suggestive  and  advisory  —  never  dogmatic 
or  censorious.    Invite  suggestions  and  conferences. 

Be  generous  with  commendation  for  genuine  effort  and  im- 
provement, especially  with  pupils  who  are  weak  or  easily  discour- 
aged. The  more  generously  you  commend,  the  more  weight  your 
adverse  comment  will  have  without  being  unduly  harsh. 

Avoid  comments  on  natural  ability  or  lack  of  it.  The  marks 
sufficiently  indicate  absolute  attainments.  Consult  parents  privately 
regarding  treatment  of  defects  or  provision  for  native  brilliancy. 

All  severe  or  doubtful  criticisms  should  be  referred  to  the 
principal  before  being  sent  out. 

Comments  must  be  carefully  thought  out  during  the  month. 
They  cannot  wisely  be  left  till  the  day  the  reports  are  due.  The 
mere  grading  is  very  easy  and  can  be  done  with  little  effort,  but 
the  comments  require  time  and  thoughtful  planning. 

Follow  up  your  coin?nenfs.  Once  a  need  for  improvement  is 
pointed  out  keep  on  pointing  it  out  until  you  get  the  improvement. 

Specimen  comments.  The  teachers'  comments  and  the 
parents'  replies  have  been  a  revelation  and  an  inspiration. 
The  splendid  human  quality  of  many  of  these  cannot  be 
indicated  out  of  their  setting,  but  some  extracts  taken  almost 
at  random  indicate  something  of  the  range  they  may  have. 

"G has  not  improved  in  his  reading.  Please  have  him  pro- 
nounce the  hard  words  to  you.  In  geography  he  did  not  measure 
his  map  carefully.  I  am  disappointed  in  his  conduct  for  he  talks 
sometimes  and  keeps  others  from  paying  attention."  (Reply) 
"  Sorry  to  get  report  of  my  boy's  misbehavior  and  hope  it  will  not 
occur  in  future.  If  you  could  let  me  know  of  his  bad  conduct  at 
once  I  will  sec  that  he  gets  punished  at  home.  I  want  to  coop- 
erate with  his  teacher  in  every  way  that  I  can."  (Next  month) 
"  George  has  improved  as  much  or  more  than  any  child  in  the 
class.  If  he  is  careful  all  the  time  with  his  writing,  he  may  get 
into  the  A  group." 

"  P ,  you  see,-  has  improved  in  almost  every  class.    I  am 

proud  of  his  effort.    He  may  begin  to  write  with  ink  as  soon  as 


1 64  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

he  can  keep  his  letters  uniform."  (Rei)ly)  ''  1  am  glad  to  sec  that 
he  has  improved.  1  shall  let  him  practice  with  pen  and  ink  here  at 
home  if  you  say  so." 

"  C has  improved  very  much  in  some  ways.    He  is  still 

careless  ahout  the  work  and  the  papers  that  he  has  at  home.  He 
asks  to  be  excused  quite  often  and  stays  out  too  long." 

(On  a  deficient  pupil)  "  P 's  letter,  written  Thursday,  was 

beautifully  done.  I  hope  he  will  always  take  such  pains  with  his 
writing.  As  a  rule  his  letters  are  too  cramped.  His  number  work 
has  improved  with  his  tr}'ing  and  our  extra  work  together.  He 
should  do  still  more  of  this  work  with  numbers.  In  drawing  he 
should  listen  more  carefully  to  directions." 

"  F 's  conduct  is  not  graded  higher  because  he  disturbs 

other  people  sometimes  and  he  sits  too  lazily." 

"It  is  a  pleasure  to  have  M .    She  is  timid  and  will  not 

speak  out  in  reading.  This  keeps  her  from  getting  A.  If  you  will 
help  her  to  overcome  this,  I  think  she  will  be  my  best  reader.    She 

is  not  sure  of  herself  in  multiplication."    (Next  month)  "  M is 

improving  in  her  reading  and  speaks  out  quite  distinctly." 

(A  boy  whose  father  complained  to  the  Superintendent  that  he 
had  no  work  to  do  at  home.    The  complaint  was  not  repeated  after 

this  report  arrived.)   "  I  don't  think  J puts  quite  enough  time 

on  his  home  work.  He  could  easily  get  A  in  reading.  His  spell- 
ing is  improving.  He  is  not  accurate  in  multiplication  and  I  should 
be  glad  if  you  would  practice  him  at  home."  (Next  month) 
'■  J 's  w'ork  has  improved  this  month." 

"  I  hope  II will  work  harder  and  do  as  well  in  other  sub- 
jects as  he  does  in  number."  (Parent's  reply  covers  whole  back  of 
report.  Expresses  appreciation  and  desire  to  cooperate  and  points 
out  that  trouble  was  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  child  seldom 
knew  just  what  was  required  of  him.  He  was  slow  and  commonly 
did  not  get  all  the  spelling  list  from  the  board  or  did  not  know 
just  what  was  expected  of  him  in  other  assignments.   Close  of  reply) 

"  Please,  Miss ,  impress  upon  him  as  plainly  as  possible  what 

his  studies  are,  and  you  may  be  assured  that  I  will  do  my  best  to 
promote  his  progress  and  see  that  he  comes  up  to  the  rules,  for 
J  do  so  7vant  my  hoy  to  do  7veU  in  school" 


REPORTS  TO   PARENTS  165 

"  We  missed   E very  much  while  she  was  absent.    She 

helps  to  make  the  grade  bright  and  interesting."' 

"  It  is  a  pleasure  to  teach  V .    She  is  so  quiet  and  polite 

and  tries  to  get  everything  right."  (Reply)  "  We  are  very  proud 
of  this." 

Effects  on  teaching.  Probably  the  greatest  value  of  these 
reports  is  the  effect  on  the  teacher's  work.  It  insures  in- 
dividual teaching  and  a  constant  study  of  individual  needs. 
A  collection  of  one  teacher's  reports  with  replies  may  be 
passed  along  to  others  or  be  made  the  basis  of  study  in 
teachers'  meeting.  The  discussion  of  them  will  suggest  solu- 
tions of  numerous  difficulties  in  discipline  and  method.  The 
effort  to  explain  low  grades  so  that  pupils  and  parents  will 
both  understand  what  should  be  done  to  remedy,  them  neces- 
sitates clear  thinking  by  the  teacher  and  gives  the  supervisor 
an  admirable  starting  point  for  lielpful  oversight  and  crit- 
icism. Quite  often  the  teachers  have  asked  the  supervisor, 
"  Please  watch  So  and  So's  reading  and  tell  me  what  is 
the  matter  with  him."  This  leads  to  very  profitable  dis- 
cussions and  alwa\s  to  better  teaching.  These  reports  show 
up  the  qualities  of  individual  teachers  in  marvelous  fashion. 
Constant  watchfulness  is  necessary  to  keep  some  teachers 
from  dropping  into  stereotyped  formulae  in  their  comments 
—  but  even  this  tendency  reveals  the  quality  of  their  teaching. 

Such  reports  have  served  very  effectively  to  introduce 
parents  and  teachers  to  each  other  and  to  bring  about  kindly 
visits  instead  of  the  formal  visitations  that  have  often  pre- 
saged trouble.  It  is  eas\'  for  the  teacher  to  intimate  on  such 
a  report  that  he  would  like  to  talk  over  Johnny's  ditficulty 
with  his  mother  and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  a  profitable 
visit  of  the  parent  to  the  school  or  of  the  teacher  to  the  home. 
They  have  eliminated  all  surprise,  friction,  or  charges  of 
partiality  in  matters  of  promotion.  In  four  years'  use  of  such 
reports  not  one  harsh  or  irritating  vcp\y  was  received  from  a 


i66  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

parent,  thou<;h  there  were  very  man)'  touching;'  responses 
which  disclosed  unsuspected  home  difficulties,  brought  unex- 
pected home  cooperation,  and  gave  the  work  those  heart  thrills 
that  make  a  teacher's  life  rich  and  beautiful  and  afford  the 
intangible  rewards  of  teaching. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Find  out  from  a  number  of  parents  just  what  they  have 
inferred  as  to  their  children's  standing  from  the  perfunctory  re- 
ports received.  Compare  carefully  these  several  inferences  with 
the  relative  progress  of  the  children. 

2.  Find  out  from  careful  inquiry  just  what  the  parents  said  or 
did  to  the  child  in  response  to  the  monthly  reports  received  in  a 
number  of  cases.  How  did  these  responses  compare  with  what 
they  should  have  been .'  Would  the  response  ha\e  been  different 
if  the  information  had  been  clearer  ? 

3.  Can  you  find  any  indications  of  reports  to  parents  having 
been  intercepted  or  tampered  with  by  the  children  ?  What  would 
you  say  of  the  spirit  of  the  school  work  which  would  afford  a 
temptation  or  reward   for  such  deception  ? 

4.  Just  what  kind  of  information  is  it  that  parents  want  and 
should  have  regarding  their  children's  progress  at  school  ?  What 
kind  of  marking  or  reporting  will  most  clearly  indicate  this  ? 

5.  Formulate  comments  and  helpful  advice  which  you  think 
most  needed  in  connection  with  the  marks  on  several  actual  reports. 

6.  Formulate  comments  and  suggestions  which  would  tend  to 
encourage  a  timid  child  ;  to  steady  an  impulsive  one ;  to  arouse 
a  capable  one  who  is  well  up  in  his  work  but  not  working  up 
to  his  own  ability. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THK   DAILY   SCHEDULE 

Traditional  forms.  Ri<^id  mechanism  has  proved  the 
bane  of  the  schools  in  the  matter  of  daily  schedule  as  in 
everything  else.  It  has  been  usual  to  divide  the  minutes 
in  the  school  day  by  the  number  of  classes  to  recite,  and 
thus  to  determine  the  length  of  each  period.  Daily  sched- 
ules commonly  have  the  same  length  of  periods  for  all 
subjects  in  the  same  grade  and  almost  always  for  the  same 
subject  on  different  days.  Yet  if  there  is  one  thing  per- 
fectly obvious  it  is  that  any  class  needs  more  of  the  teacher's 
time  and  attention  on  some  lessons  than  on  others  even  in 
the  same  subject. 

Principles  of  the  schedule.  We  are  confronted  by  the 
j^roblcm  of  conserving  the  economy,  convenience,  and  uni- 
formity attained  through  a  definite  daily  schedule,  and  at 
the  same  time  avoiding  its  destructive  rigiditv.  Before  pre- 
senting a  solution  of  the  difficulty,  let  us  have  in  mind  the 
aims  that  should  govern  in  making  a  schedule. 

I.     PUVSIOLOGICAL    CoXSinERATIONS 

I .  The  length  of  the  recitation  period,  as  of  the  school  day, 
should  increase  with  the  age  of  the  pupil.  Beginners  should 
not  be  confined  to  one  sort  of  activity  for  more  than  eight 
or  ten  minutes,  but  high-school  pupils  may  well  concentrate 
on  one  thing  for  forty  minutes  or  an  hour.  Three  hours  is 
sufficient  for  a  school  day  in  the  first  grade  ;  six  is  not  too 
much  for  the  high  school. 

167 


I68  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

2.  The  length  of  the  period  should  decrease  as  the 
intensity  of  the  mental  application  or  the  fineness  of  the 
muscular  coordination  required  increases.  ( )r,  to  put  it 
another  \va\-.  the  intensity  and  accuracy  will  decrease  as 
the  length  of  the  period  increases. 

3.  The  length  of  the  period  should  decrease  with  the 
monotony  and  increase  with  the  variety  of  the  activity  re- 
quired in  the  lesson.  Drills  on  multiplication  should  be  in 
three-minute  to  five-minute  periods  preferably  and  at  very 
high  pressure,  while  a  theme,  for  example,  Hiawatha,  may  be 
developed  through  reading,  story-telling,  drawing,  writing, 
language  work,  construction  activities,  etc.  and  occupy  a 
whole  day  if  desired. 

4.  The  '"  hard  "  studies  should  have  the  best  part  of  the 
day.  The  best  hour  for  work  is  that  immediately  after  the 
morning  exercises.  It  seems  to  be  generally  assumed  that 
arithmetic  is  the  hard  study,  but  the  writer  has  interrogated 
a  large  number  of  teachers  and  students  and  has  never 
yet  found  a  group  in  which  the  majority  had  themselves 
found  arithmetic  the  hardest  subject  either  to  teach  or  to 
study.  There  seem  to  be  more  who  regard  grammar  and 
the  language  studies  as  hardest,  but  there  is  no  approach 
to  agreement.  The  same  inquiries  have  indicated  that 
while  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  aptitude  of 
pupils,  the  largest  factor  in  the  difficulty  of  a  study  is 
not  the  subject  but  the  methods  of  the  particular  teacher. 
Whatever  subject  is  at  the  time  causing  special  difficulty 
for  the  class  or  teacher  may  be  temporarily  gi\en  the  best 
of  the  day. 

5.  Similarly,  subjects  requiring  little  concentration  should 
be  reserved  for  the  close  of  the  day  or  for  a  period  just 
before  or  just  after  the  noon  recess.  These  subjects  also  would 
be  selected  according  to  the  methods  or  aims  of  the  teacher. 
Commonly  they  are  physiology,  history,  or  literature. 


THE  DAILY  SCHEDULE  169 

6.  Fine  muscular  codrdinations,  as  in  writing  and  draw- 
ing, should  never  be  required  just  after  the  physical  strain 
and  excitement  of  playtime. 

7.  There  should  be  alternations  of  intense  and  of  easier 
tasks,  of  mental  and  of  physical  application,  of  study  and 
of  recreation.  Calisthenics,  singing,  marching,  or  games 
which  flush  out  the  lungs  and  invigorate  the  circulation 
should  interrupt  sedentary  work  about  once  an  hour  in 
primary  classes  and  almost  as  frequently  among  older  chil- 
dren. This  physical  relaxation  should  be  free  and  easy, 
not  requiring  finely  coordinated  drill  nor  intense  attention. 
Severe,  formal  drills  have  a  valuable  function,  but  they  are 
not  recreation. 

Fatigue.  In  this  connection  it  will  be  well  to  note  the 
salient  facts  regarding  fatigue  as  it  concerns  the  school 
schedule.  Actual  physical  fatigue  is  probably  due  to  the 
presence  in  the  blood  of  a  toxin  produced  by  the  process 
of  using  up  the  tissues  of  the  body.  Normally  this  is  re- 
moved by  the  various  excretive  organs.  During  periods  of 
activity  the  toxin  is  produced  more  rapidly  than  it  is  removed, 
and  the  balance  is  established  in  periods  of  rest.  An  excess 
of  the  toxin  in  the  system  gives  one  the  sensation  of  being 
tired.  The  tired  feeling,  however,  is  more  often  due  to 
sluggishness  of  the  vital  processes  than  to  overactivity. 
When  a  school  child  is  physically  fatigued,  that  is,  suffers 
from  the  actual  presence  of  the  fatigue  toxin,  it  is  not 
likely  to  be  due  to  overwork  but  to  some  such  causes  as 
these  :  pathological  conditions  such  as  anaemia,  indigestion, 
nervous  disorders,  or  perhaps  tubercular  affection  ;  adenoids, 
enlarged  tonsils,  etc.  ;  lack  of  sleep,  unwholesome  food,  worry, 
fear,  or  other  emotional  disturbance.  From  such  causes 
the  school  may  be  the  innocent  sufferer,  but  it  is  the  guilt)' 
producer  of  much  actual  fatigue  caused  bv  evestrain  due 
to  bad  lighting ;   by  nerve-strain  due  to  anv  uncomfortable 


I/O  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

or  irritating  conditions ;  b)-  worry  or  fear  arising  from 
methods  of  discipline  ;  by  bad  posture  causing  strain  of  the 
muscles  of  the  back  and  neck  and  restricting  the  action  of 
the  vital  organs  ;  by  overstrain  of  any  one  set  of  muscles  due 
to  too  long  confinement  at  one  task  ;  by  lack  of  the  exercise 
which  stimulates  all  the  organs  to  effective  functioning  ;  or 
by  bad  ventilation,  involving,  as  has  been  shown,  lack  of 
surface  stimulation  by  air  currents,  lack  of  oxygen,  excess 
of  impurities,  high  temperature,  and  improper  humidity. 
Tests  have  tended  to  show  that  fatigue  is  least  at  the 
beginning  of  the  school  day  and  increases  toward  the  end, 
as  would  be  expected  ;  also  that  it  diminishes  rapidly  at 
each  recess,  despite  the  greater  bodily  exertion  of  playing, 
though  not  to  the  point  at  which  the  day  was  begun. 

Investigations  bear  out  the  conclusion  that  physical  fatigue 
does  not  result  frojn  school  work  in  any  degree  worthy  of 
■consideration.  A  healthy  child  under  wholesome  conditions 
can  work  at  practically  maximum  efficiency  at  the  close  of 
the  school  day  without  the  slightest  injury.  Every  person 
in  good  health  probably  has  an  abundance  of  reserve  energ)- 
which  is  seldom  drawn  upon  except  in  very  strenuous 
physical  exertion.  Instead  of  being  dangerous,  it  is  a  most 
valuable  habit  to  work  close  to  one's  maximum  capacity. 
Only  thus  is  one's  capacity  increased.  The  majority  of  per- 
sons go  through  life  doing  all  things  far  below  their  ability. 
More  work  means  more  energy,  more  vigor,  better  health, 
and  greater  joy  of  living,  besides  infinitely  greater  achieve- 
ment. Wc  need  7iot  fear  injuriojis  fatigue  among  school 
children  if  tee  can  be  absolutely  sure  that  physical  conditions 
are  ivholesome. 

A  very  different  matter  is  that  other  and  more  common 
sort  of  tiredness,  mental  ennui,  tedium,  weariness,  or  what- 
ever it  may  be  called,  which  is  often  termed  "  mental 
fatigue."    This  is  not  at  all  dangerous  except  to  habits  of 


THE   DAILY  SCHEDULE  171 

work.  It  has  no  demonstrable  physical  reality,  but  it  is 
none  the  less  a  real  interference  with  mental  work.  It  is 
due  to  monotony,  dissipated  attention,  lack  of  interest  or 
motivation,  a  lack  of  a  feeling  that  the  thing  to  be  done 
is  worth  doing.  It  can  no  more  be  banished  by  the 
teacher's  fiat  than  the  physical  sort  can.  It  is  like  the  thirst 
which  the  child  thinks  he  has  when  he  has  nothing  else  to 
think  of  and  whicli  is  not  lessened  by  his  being  told  that 
he  cannot  drink  or  that  he  is  not  thirsty.  This  mental 
pseudo-fatigue  seems  to  be  a  suggestion  of  a  sensation  so 
decided,  and  yet  so  vague  and  indefinite  of  cause  and  of 
symptom,  that  the  wisest  and  most  self-controlled  cannot 
avoid  getting  "tired  of"  that  in  which  they  are  not  inter- 
ested. It  is  a  psychological  reality  as  truly  as  is  the  study 
or  interest  with  which  it  so  effectively  interferes.  The 
obvious  and  the  only  remedy  is  good  teaching,  zvitJi  abun- 
dant motivation  for  the  tasks  assigned,  frequent  change 
of  occupation,  avoidance  of  interruptions  and  distractions 
during  the  time  of  concentration,  and  constant  adaptation 
of  work  to  the  pupils'  interests. 

The  application  of  this  interpolated  discussion  of  fatigue 
to  the  making  of  the  daily  schedule  is  obvious  and  is  covered 
by  the  various  principles  stated. 

II.    l'i:i)A(;()(;icAL  Considerations 

I.  The  length  of  the  period  should  not  depend  in  any 
degree  whatever  upon  the  number  of  recitations  which  tiic 
teacher  has  to  hear.  Economy  of  time  can  be  attained 
only  by  fitting  the  lengtJi  of  the  period  to  the  pedagogical 
needs  of  each  lesson.  Waste  is  sure  to  result  from  cutting 
periods  too  short  for  effective  recitation  or  from  fixing  a 
length  which  may  be  too  little  one  day  and  too  much 
anotlier. 


172  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

2.  When  a  teacher  has  more  than  two  grades  or  groups 
in  all  the  common  school  branches,  the  day  is  too  short  to 
provide  a  distinct  period  for  each  lesson. 

3.  Some  subjects  by  their  nature  require  more  sustained 
thought  and  longer  periods  for  recitation  than  do  others.  AH 
subjects  require  longer  periods  for  some  recitations  than 
for  others  ;  for  example,  the  dci'clopinciit  of  a  new  topic  in 
arithmetic  or  history  demands  the  uninterrupted  direction  of 
the  teacher  for  some  time,  while  a  recitation  on  the  same 
subject  next  day  requires  perhaps  half  as  much,  and  a  dnll 
on  the  essentials  a  few  days  later  may  demand  still  less. 

4.  Some  lessons  demand  the  constant  participation  of 
the  teacher,  as  an  inductive  development ;  others  may  be 
conducted  most  profitably  by  any  pupil,  as  a  drill  on  funda- 
mentals or  a  dictation  lesson  ;  in  still  others,  as  the  working 
out  of  problems,  the  pupils  arc  best  left  to  themselves,  and 
the  presence  of  the  teacher  hurrying  them  to  finish  before 
the  scheduled  period  is  up  is  an  actual  hindrance. 

5.  Monotony  may  be  avoided,  economy  enhanced,  and 
various  social  values  very  much  increased  by  frequently 
changing  the  personnel  of  the  recitation  groups  :  for  ex- 
ample, both  groups  of  a  grade  should  work  together  regu- 
larly in  some  subjects,  and  in  others  occasionally  or  at 
stated  times ;  all  the  groups  in  a  room  may  be  thrown 
together  at  times  for  special  sorts  of  work,  and  this  with 
or  without  notice  ;  or  they  may  be  pitted  against  each  other 
variously  for  competitive  drills. 

6.  The  necessity  for  frequently  recurring  reviews  invites 
special  combinations  of  classes.  A  group  which  passed 
over  a  certain  important  summary  the  previous  year  may 
be  combined  with  one  which  passed  it  two  months  ago, 
and  with  one  which  has  just  reached  it.  The  advanced 
group  having  no  special  preparation,  and  the  others  being 
relatively  quite  fresh  on  the  tcjpic,  the  contests  are  genuine 


THE  DAILY  SCHEDULE  173 

and  keen.  The  characteristically  hard  and  important  points 
should  become  traditional  as  "joint-contest  lessons,"  and 
warning  that  a  topic  is  likely  to  be  so  used  will  serve  to 
insure  any  class  making  itself  thorough  and  permanently 
sure  on  that  topic. 

7.  Provision  must  be  made  regularly  for  study  periods 
and  for  individual  instruction.  These,  like  the  recitations, 
require  more  time  for  some  subjects  and  for  some  lessons 
than  for  others. 

8.  Opportunities  should  be  afforded  for  special  groups 
of  children  to  work  together  on  distinct  projects  and  special 
assignments.  Some  of  the  finest  mental  and  social  values 
are  attained  in  this  way. 

9.  It  is  economical  and  thoroughly  practical  for  a  teacher 
to  conduct  two  or  more  lessons  of  ccrtaiii  kinds  at  the 
same  time  :  for  example,  spelling  dictated  to  groups  alter- 
nately ;  one  group  may  work  problems  at  the  board  while 
another  has  oral  drill  or  seat  tasks  ;  one  class  may  be  self- 
conducted  under  the  teacher's  oversight  while  another 
is  being  directed  at  their  seats.  The  self-conducted  class 
is  the  clima.x  of  good  teaching. 

10.  Permanent  groups  that  are  too  small  are  as  objec- 
tionable as  those  that  are  too  large.  In  small  high  schools 
particularly  (just  where  economy  in  class  time  is  most  needed) 
instead  of  litde  groups  of  two  to  ten  being  kept  constantlv 
together,  classes  should  be  combined  in  science,  history, 
literature,  and  other  subjects  in  which  a  particular  sequence 
is  not  imi)erative  ;  for  example,  physiography  and  chemistry 
may  be  offered  one  year,  and  biology  and  physics  the  next. 
Thus  every  pupil  in  his  course  will  have  a  chance  at  each 
of  the  four  sciences.  \\\  halving  the  number  of  classes  the 
limited  teaching  corps  has  twice  as  much  time  for  each. 
The  same  principle  may  be  applied  to  several  subjects  in 
the  grammar  grades. 


174  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

11.  Time  may  similarh-  l:)c  economized  by  alternating 
lessons  daily  or  by  terms.  Better  far  than  having  scrappy, 
fifteen-minute  lessons  in  geograph}'  and  history  for  all  the 
year  is  to  have  thirty-minute  lessons  in  one  three  times  a  week 
and  in  the  other  twice,  or  in  one  daily  for  half  the  year  and 
in  the  other  for  the  next  half. 

12.  The  more  rapid  groups  increase  their  capacity  and 
self-reliance  by  constantly  increasing  self-direction  in  both 
study  and  recitation,  thus  requiring  less  and  less  of  the 
time  of  the  teaclier.  Weaker  groups,  on  the  other  hand, 
require  more  instruction  and  study  supervision.  The  pro- 
portions must  necessarily  vary  from  lesson  to  lesson. 

13.  The  whole  plan  of  dividing  the  work  of  pupils  strictly 
along  the  lines  of  subjects  has  been  assailed  time  and  again. 
While  no  very  radical  change  is  likely  to  come  into  general 
use,  there  should  at  least  be  opportunity  to  correlate  and 
consolidate  kindred  subjects  when  desired.  Nothing  in  the 
schedule  should  prevent  the  merging  of  history  and  civics, 
or  history  and  geograph\\  or  the  several  lar^guage  arts  with 
each  other  or  with  any  other  subject. 

14.  Habits  of  concentration  and  prompt  dispatch  of  work 
are  worth  more  than  any  mere  uniformity.  Work  should 
be  done  for  a  reasonable  time  under  high  pressure.  When 
completed  it  should  be  laid  aside,  regardless  of  schedule. 
Taboo  all  dawdling. 

15.  Individual  variations  in  ability  demand  that  only 
the  maximum  time  allowed  for  a  task  be  specified  in  the 
schedule  and  that  the  more  rapid  workers  be  free  to  leave 
any  task  when  completed.  This  can  l)e  provided  for  in 
part  by  elastic  assignments,  —  that  is,  supplementary  readings 
and  problems  for  those  who  can  get  to  them,  —  but  rapidity 
and  concentration  are  better  encouraged  by  allowing  the 
pupil  to  devote  the  time  saved  to  some  self-selected  reading 
or  project  instead  of  requiring  additional  work  in  the  same 


THE  DAILY  SCHEDULE  175 

lesson.  A  fine  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  teaching 
foresight  and  skill  is  afforded  by  the  provision  of  well- 
motivated  work  for  spare  moments. 

16.  The  standard  forty-minute  period  on  which  high- 
school  credits  are  usually  based  has  frequently  been  con- 
strued to  mean  that  forty  minutes  daily  must  be  spent  by 
the  pupil  in  reciting,  whether  he  knows  anything  to  recite 
or  not.  The  term  should  be  construed  to  mean  not  less 
than  forty  minutes  daily  of  the  most  profitable  work  under 
the  immediate  and  undivided  oversight  and  direction  of  the 
teacher.  Ten  minutes'  talk  in  class  and  forty  minutes'  intelli- 
gent study  are  worth  incomparably  more  than  forty  minutes' 
talk  based  upon  a  superficial  ten  minutes  of  study.  The 
forty-minute  recitation  period  is  about  the  poorest  standard 
of  uniformity  imaginable.  The  equipment,  the  teacher,  the 
additional  study  time  required,  and  the  ability  of  the 
individual  pupil  all  make  for  the  widest  conceivable  vari- 
ation in  the  educative  results  from  a  "  Carnegie  unit." 
Nevertheless,  it  is  almost  the  only  standard  of  measure 
possible  for  the  service  to  whicli  it  is  put,  except  the 
testing  of  the  pupil  himself.  Any  college-entrance  official 
will  welcome  the  substitution  of  more  independent  studv  and 
less  of  mere  pumping  and  stuffing  protracted  to  consume  a 
forty-minute  recitation  period. 

17.  It  is  very  desirable  that  children  should  look  forward 
to  the  opening  and  backward  to  the  closing  of  the  daily 
session  as  the  most  interesting  and  attractive  moments  of 
daily  life.  This  goes  far  to  make  the  child  love  school  and 
to  secure  promptness  in  getting  there  each  morning.  The 
dull  moments  between  will  be  forgotten  if  the  opening 
exercises  are  such  that  everyone  is  anxious  never  to  miss 
them  and  the  last  jXM'iod  is  rcserwd  for  a  stor\-  hour,  tor 
happy  discussions,  or  whatever  will  make  the  pupils  truly 
sorry  when  the  bell  rings  for  dismissal. 


176  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Reflex  influences.  Finally,  a  prime  essential  of  the 
schedule,  as  of  every  other  device  of  school  organization, 
is  a  plan  that  will  force  the  teachers  who  tend  to  fall  into 
ruts  and  work  by  rule  of  thumb  to  keep  everlastingly  think- 
ing about  the  vital  things  of  their  work.  Constant  weighing 
of  such  considerations  as  we  ha\e  enumerated  above  will 
go  far  toward  making  the  teacher  a  directing  overseer,  a 
guide  and  counselor,  p.  student  of  pupils'  individual  and  group 
needs,  rather  than  a  mere  routine  lesson  hearer.  Monotony 
is  banished  and  "  dead  time  "  eliminated  if  the  teacher  lives 
up  to  this  opportunity.  Pupils  become  conscious  of  the 
significance  of  what  they  are  doing  when  time  is  adjusted 
to  the  thing  to  be  done,  instead  of  their  being  sentenced 
to  hard  labor  for  a  fixed  time,  regardless  of  what  is  to  be 
done.  The  various  considerations  which  we  have  detailed 
at  length  cannot  be  met  by  an  ironclad  daily  time-table. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  cannot  recognize  too  clearly  that  a 
school  without  a  very  clear-cut  schedule  faithfully  adhered 
to  will  soon  be  chaotic. 

The  "  elastic  schedule."  A  simple  elastic  schedule,  easily 
arranged,  has  been  found  to  meet  every  consideration  we 
have  mentioned.  It  is  made  by  dividing  the  school  day  into 
four  to  six  large  periods,  not  necessarily  of  the  same  length, 
each  assigned  to  some  subject  or  group  of  related  subjects. 
All  groups  in  the  room  work  strictly  within  the  prescribed 
field  during  the  limits  of  a  period.  The  period  divisions 
must  be  violated  only  for  most  urgent  considerations,  with 
the  exception  that  individual  pupils  may  utilize  s/>trn-  time  in 
any  period  for  other  tasks  or  for  privileges  approved  by  the 
teacher.  The  schedule  may  readilv  be  modified  from  time 
to  time  as  conditions  seem  to  make  this  desirable. 

Illustrative  program,  l-'ollowing  is  a  schedule  success- 
fully used  by  a  teacher  of  two  grades,  the  fifth  and  the 
sixth,  each  grade  being  divided  into  two  shifting  groups,  A 


THE  DAILY  SCHEDULE 


177 


and  B.  The  groups  varied  from  six  to  twelve  pupils  each. 
This  specimen  is  selected  because  of  the  unusual  difficulties 
which  it  meets.  The  program  for  an  ordinar)'  classroom 
with  one  grade  of  two  or  three  groups  is  considerably 
simpler  but  follows  the  same  plan  of  construction. 

The  time  within  the  period  divisions  may  be  redistributed 
according  to  daily  needs. 


9-9.15         Opening  Exercises. 
9.15-10.10 


Arithmetic 
(55  min.) 


5  min.    Assign  problems  to  6  A  at  seats  ;  assign  prob- 
lems to  6  B  at  blackboard. 
35  min.    Develop  new  topic  with  5. A.. 
15  min.    5  B  recite  on  topic  developed  yesterday  and 
studied  during  preceding  40  min. 

(Following  day  6  A  has  new  topic  in  35  min.,  5  A 
recites  1 5  min.,  5  B  works  at  board,  6  B  at 
seats.) 
(On  the  next  day,  6  B  has  new  topic.  6  A  recita- 
tion, 5  A  at  board,  5  B  at  seats,  etc.  in  rotation 
as  closely  as  the  nature  of  the  work  permits.) 
(In  this  room  it  is  convenient  to  use  the  fifth  day 
in  each  week  for  combining  groups  in  review 
and  drill  work.) 


10. 10-10.50 


r  10  min.    Review  5th  grade  on  essentials  of  yesterday's 
lesson  and  outline  advanced  assignment ;  6th  grade 
Geography         preparing. 

(40  min.)     130  min.     Recitation    or   development   in   6th   grade; 
5th  grade  studying. 

(Reverse  on  following  day.) 
10. 50-1  1. 10 

.Singing  J  Both  grades  together,  alternated  with  drawing,  arith- 
(20  min.)\      metic  drill,  or  supervised  study  period. 
I  i.io-i  1 .50 

.  \  I  Reverse  geography  schedule  for  dav. 
(40  mm.)  I  t'     ft    1    . 

I  1. 50-1 2 

,  (  Spelling  and  pciinumship  drills  for  those  below  stand- 
(10  mm.)-^  , 

^  l^      ard. 


178  sc:hc)c)L  efficiency 

Recess 
t-1.40 

["  Period  divided  about  equally  between  the  two  grades, 
not  divided  into  permanent  sections.  Time  varies 
with  selection  but  is  balanced  from  day  to  day. 
Once  or  twice  a  week  all  combine  in  some  selection 
of  interest  to  all. 
1.40-2.35 

Language  f  Division    of    period    and    rotation    as    in    arithmetic. 
(55  min.)  1       Composition  usually  instead  of  blackboard  work. 

2-35-3 

f  Hygiene, 5th  grade,  Monday  and  Wednesday ;  6th  grade 
(25  min.)^       study.     Physiology,  6th  grade,  Tuesday  and  Thurs- 


Reading 

(40  min.) 


day:  5th  grade  study.    Current  events,  all,  Friday. 

At  the  beginning  of  eacli  period  and  in  daily  assignments 
the  teacher  indicates  in  a  word  the  order  of  taking  up  the 
work. 

In  geography,  history,  and  reading  the  group  distinctions 
are  maintained  by  kiteral  extension  mainly  ;  that  is,  group  A 
is  assigned  additional  readings  on  which  they  report  to  the 
entire  class,  group  projects  in  map-making,  dramatization, 
or  school-fair  contests.  The  regular  groups  in  these  subjects 
may  be  retained  where  a  teacher  has  but  one  grade.  In  sing- 
ing, hygiene,  etc.  there  are  no  group  distinctions.  Spelling 
and  penmanship  are  conducted  much  of  the  time  on  an  in- 
dividual basis,  the  proficient  pupils  being  excused  for  other 
work  if  desired.  Manual  training  for  the  boys  and  domestic 
science  for  the  girls  are  done  in  other  rooms  and  take  the 
place  of  one  period  each  week.  Drilling,  dictating,  and  the 
inspection  of  work  done  at  the  board  or  at  the  seats  is  fre- 
quently done  by  pupils  —  with  increased  educative  values. 

Program  for  a  small  high  school.  lM)lIowing  is  an  adapta- 
tion of  the  same  general  plan  to  a  small  high  school.-  The 
chief  features  of  this  schedule  arc  the  use  of  long  periods 
and  the  combination  of  classes.     One  teacher  can  conduct 


THE  DAILY  SCHEDULE  179 

tAvo  small  classes  in  Latin  for  seventy  minutes  and  give  to 
each  as  much  or  more  actual  instruction  than  could  be  given 
to  them  separately  in  ninety  minutes  or  more.  The  subjects 
taught  in  the  longer  periods  are  not  expected  to  be  studied 
outside  of  this  time  except  by  the  few  who  are  backward, 
and  they  have  one  or  two  vacant  periods  during  the  day  for 
study.  English  for  Grade  II  and  Grade  III  is  distinct  as  to 
textbook  recitations,  consolidated  as  to  theme  work,  and  alter- 
nated annually  as  to  literature,  by  which  means  the  abundant 
equivalent  of  two  forty-minute  recitations  can  be  accom- 
plished in  fifty  minutes  of  the  teacher's  time.  The  science 
and  history  courses  are  consolidated  outright,  the  courses 
offered  being  given  in  alternate  years.  On  this  schedule 
any  pupil  ca)i  take  as  many  as  six  subjects  in  any  year,  but 
the  majority  should  take  but  four  and  the  more  capable 
ones  five,  having  one  or  two  periods  daily  for  study  and 
a  considerable  range  for  election.  As  arranged,  the  course 
could  be  conducted  by  two  teachers  and  half  time  of  a 
third,  though  better  instruction  would  be  secured  by  having 
a  more  adequate  force.  Schedules  for  larger  schools  with 
ample  teaching  force  require  no  special  combinations. 

r.RAni-  I  II  III  IV 

9-9.15  15  mill.      Opening   exercises   twice  a  week   out   of    first 

period. 

9-10.30            90  min.     Math.       Math.  Latin                  Latin 

10.30-11.20     50  min.     History    English  English^      Mod.  Lang. 

1 1. 20- 1 2          40  min.     English  Math. 

40  min.  \  T     •        f  Latin  5  da.     J 

30  min.  J                \  Latin  3  da.  \  Laboratory         3  days 


1-2. 10  40  min.  1  ,     .        f  Latin  5  da.      f  Science 

)■  Latin     J  ^  J 


J  History  2  days 

2.10-2.50         40  min.  r  Lab.  2  da.    i^  History  3  days  Math. 

2.50-3.30         40  min.  (^Science  Mod.  Lang.       English 

Unlimited  adaptations  and  variations  of  the  principles  of 
this  schedule  are  possible. 


i8o  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

A  Montessori  program.  An  illustration  of  the  modern 
trend,  away  from  rigid  divisions  of  the  da\-  into  short  periods 
is  shown  in  the  daily  program  under  which  Dr.  Maria 
Montessori  conducts  her  celebrated  Casa  dc  Bambini  at 
Rome.  This  is  the  daily  schedule  as  given  in  the  bulletin  of 
the  national  Bureau  of  Education,  by  Anna  Tolman  Smith  : 

Opening  at  g  o'c/ock.    Closing  at  4  o'clock 

9-10.  Entrance.  Greeting.  Inspection  as  to  personal  cleanliness.  Ex- 
ercises of  practical  life ;  helping  one  another  to  take  off  and  put 
on  the  aprons.  Cioing  over  the  room  to  see  that  everything  is 
dusted  and  in  order.  Language :  conversation  period ;  children 
give  an  account  of  the  events  of  the  day  before.  Religious 
exercises. 

lo-ii.  Intellectual  exercises.  Objective  lessons  interrupted  by  short 
rest  periods.    Nomenclature ;  sense  exercises. 

1 1- 1 1.30.  Simple  gymnastics:  Ordinary  movements  done  gracefully; 
normal  position  of  the  body,  walking,  marching  in  line,  salutations, 
movements  for  attention,  placing  of  objects  gracefully. 

1 1. 30-1 2.    Luncheon.    Short  prayer. 

1 2- 1.    Free  games. 

1-2.  Directed  games,  if  possible  in  the  open  air.  During  this  period 
the  older  children  in  turn  go  through  the  exercises  of  practical  life, 
cleaning  the  room,  dusting,  putting  the  material  in  order.  General 
inspection  for  cleanliness.    Conversation. 

2-3.    Manual  work.    Clay  modeling,  design,  etc. 

3-4.  Collective  gymnastics  and  songs,  if  possible  in  the  open  air. 
Exercises  to  develop  forethought;  visiting  and  caring  for  the 
plants  and  animals. 

The  Gary  program.  Perhaps  the  most  significant  radical 
improvement  in  the  matter  of  daily  programs  is  that  evolved 
by  Superintendent  Wirt  at  Gary,  Indiana,  and  known  as  the 
Gary  Plan.  This  plan  has  attracted  attention  primarily  as  a 
means  of  getting  larger  .service  from  the  .school  plant  by 
means  of  having  .several  groups  of  children  use  the  same 
rooms  and  equipment  in  rotation.    The  importance  of  such 


THE  DAILY  SCHEDULE 


i8i 


a  plan  in  the  cnnvded  schools  of  the  larger  cities  resulted 
in  Mr.  Wirt  being  invited  to  inaugurate  his  plan  in  some  of 
the  New  York  City  schools.  It  has  also  been  approved  for 
nation-wide  adoption  in  Japan.  Under  the  Gary  Plan  the 
work  of  the  school  is  divided  into  four  departments  :  namely, 
Department  i,  consisting  of  language,  mathematics,  history, 
and  geography  ;  Department  2,  science,  manual  training, 
drawing,  and  music ;  Department  3,  auditorium  exercises 
for  mass  instruction ;  Department  4,  play,  physical  training, 
and  application  by  means  of  free  activities.  The  children  of 
the  school,  likewise,  are  divided  into  four  sections  or  groups  : 
one  half  of  all  the  children  in  Grade  I  to  Grade  IV  constitute 
group  A;  one  half  of  Grade  V  to  Grade  VIII  constitute 
group  B  ;  the  other  halves  of  these  grades  respectively  con- 
stitute groups  C  and  D.  The  school  day  is  long,  eight  and 
one-fourth  hours  for  most  of  the  pupils,  and  is  divided  into 
eight  one-hour  periods.  The  groups  pass  in  succession 
through  the  several  departments  of  work  about  as  follows : 


Department  i 

Department  2 

Department  3 

Department  4 

(Jroup 

Group 

Group 

Group 

8.15-  9.15 

A 

B 

— 

C,  D 

9.I5-IO.I5 

U 

A 

c 

D 

I0.I5-1 1.15 

C 

D 

A 

B 

II. 15-12. 15 

I) 

c: 

— 

— 

12.15-  1-30 

A 

u 

— 

— 

1.30-  2.30 

H 

A 

D 

C 

2.30-  330 

C 

D 

B 

A 

3.30-  4.30 

D 

C 

— 

A,  B 

Roughly  speaking,  each  classroom  can  accommodate  four 
distinct  groups  of  children  each  day,  thus  multiplying  the 
capacity  of  the  school  by  four,  provided  that  separate  equip- 
ment is  supplied  for  each  of  the  four  departments  of  work. 
Practically  there   are    many   limitations   on   this   quadruple 


1S2  SCHOOL   KIFICIKNCY 

service  of  the  buildings,  but  there  are  also  many  interest- 
ing and  advantageous  variations  on  the  plan  as  it  has  been 
briefly  and  incompletely  outlined  above. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  the  practical  difference  between  being  tired  by  a 
task  and  being  tired  of  it  ? 

2.  Do  children  show  any  less  capacity  for  mental  work  toward 
the  close  of  a  school  day,  provided  they  are  equally  interested  and 
have  sufficient  exercise  and  air  ? 

3.  Criticize  on  both  h)gienic  and  pedagogical  grounds  several 
daily  schedules  in  actual  use. 

4.  Arrange  better  schedules  to  meet  the  same  conditions. 

5.  Arrange  a  schedule  according  to  the  principles  in  this  chapter 
for  a  three-year  high  school  with  two  teachers. 

6.  Study  the  Gary  Plan  with  a  view  to  determining  to  what 
extent  the  idea  of  rotation  could  be  adapted  to  relieve  the  crowded 
condition  which  might  prevail  in  any  department  of  a  school ;  for 
example,  the  manual-training  shops  or  domestic-science  kitchens. 

READINGS 

Bagley.    Classroom  Management,  chap.  iv. 

Chancellor.    Class  Teaching  and  Management,  chap.  v. 

CoLGROVE.    The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chap.  xii. 

CuLTER  and  Stone.    The  Rural  School  and  its  Management,  chap.  viii. 

DiNSMORE.    Teaching  a  District  School,  chap.  ii. 

Button.    School  Management,  chap.  x. 

Jones.    Teaching  Children  to  .Study,  chaps,  v-viii. 

Lincoln.    Everyday  Pedagogy,  chap.  v. 

Page.    Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  cliap.  xi. 

Salisbury.    School  Management,  chap.  x. 

Seelev.    a  New  School  Management,  chap.  v. 

White.    School  Management,  p.  86. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletins 

Bulletin  No.  i8,  1914,  "  The  I'ublic  School  System  of  (iary,  Indiana  " 
(Pjurris). 

Bulletin  A'o.  12,  191  2, "  The  Montessori  System  of  Education  "(.Smith). 


THE  DAILY  SCHEDULE  1 83 

On  Fatigue 

CoLViN.    The  Leferning  Process,  pp.  270  ff. 

Heck.    A  Study  of  Mental  Fatigue. 

KiRKPATRiCK.    Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  chap.  xvii. 

Offnek.    Mental  Fatigue. 

O'Shea.    Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  chap,  xviii. 

Putnam.    School  Janitors,  Mothers,  and  Health,  chap.  i. 

Pyle.    Outlines  of  Educational  Psychology,  chap.  xv. 

Starch.    Experiments  in  Educational  Psychology,  chap.  xiii. 

Thorndike.    Educational  Psychology  (Briefer  Course),  chaps,  xix,  xx. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

HOME   STUDY  AND   SITTDY  PROGRAMS 

The  indictment  of  home  study.  The  schools  gradually 
drifted  into  the  custom  of  expecting  their  pupils  to  do  con- 
siderable studying  out  of  school  hours.  Of  late  there  has 
been  much  agitation  in  medical  and  educational  circles,  as 
well  as  in  the  popular  press,  on  the  inadvisability  of  such 
requirements.  Objections  raised  to  home-study  requirements 
may  be  summed  up  thus  : 

1.  There  is  danger  to  the  health  of  a  j^upil  who  works 
through  the  school  hours  and  in  the  evenings  too.  Six  hours 
of  hard  mental  work  is  all  that  should  be  required  of  a 
growing  child.  Study  which  interferes  with  abundant  sleep 
causes  incomparably  more  harm  than  benefit  to  school 
progress. 

2.  Long  hours  are  conduci\e  to  bad  habits  of  dawdling 
over  work  both  at  school  and  at  home.  Study  periods  at 
school  become  occasions  for  mischief  and  those  at  home 
for  trifling.  The  maximum  efficiency  and  the  best  mental 
habits  result  from  a  few  hours  of  concentrated  attention 
and  high-pressure  work,  with  complete  relief  at  other  times. 

3.  The  amount  of  time  devoted  to  lessons  at  home  can- 
not be  controlled.  Some  children  need  much  more  than 
others  to  accomplish  the  same  task.  Where  departmental 
teaching  prevails,  as  in  high  schools,  ordinarily  each  teacher 
makes  his  assignments  without  reference  to  others.  One 
night  the  child  will  have  very  little  to  do,  while  each  of 
four  or  five  teachers  may  require  an  extra  task  the  next 
night.     Inquiry  among  the  teachers  of  a  certain  group  of 

184 


HOME  STUDY  AND   S'lLDY  PROGRAMS        185 

high-school  pupils  disclosed  the  fact  that  collectively  they 
were  expecting  from  six  to  eight  hours  of  study  from  these 
children  practically  every  night.  Each  of  these  teachers 
had  indignantly  denied  that  he  was  overtaxing  them  in  his 
department  and  was  astonished  at  the  combined  results. 

4.  Study  in  some  homes  is  done  with  bad  lights  and 
such  discomforts  and  distractions  as  to  be  more  harmful 
than  profitable.  In  the  better  homes  there  is  often  very 
much  of  "helping"  of  the  misguided  sort,  which  is  worse 
than  none  at  all,  upsetting  plans  for  training  in  study  and 
deceiving  the  teacher  utterly  as  to  the  child's  effort  and 
achievement, 

5.  "Lessons  to  get"  is  made  an  excuse,  valid  or  not, 
for  evasion  of  home  duties,  church  attendance,  and  other 
responsibilities  which  are,  up  to  a  certain  point,  no  less 
educative  than  school  duties. 

6.  Home  life,  which  Americans  regard  as  the  basis  of 
that  which  is  best  and  purest  in  our  civilization,  is  largely 
destroyed.  hYom  the  time  the  child  is  old  enough  to  sit 
up  at  night  the  long  winter  evenings  mean  to  him  not  the 
beautiful  ideals  of  hearth-side  and  home  circle,  but  the 
hardest  and  most  uninspiring  tasks  tliat  he  will  probably 
ever  know.  Might  not  some  of  our  social  problems  be 
very  much  alleviated  if  the  demands  of  the  school  did  not 
make  impossible  the  fine  influences  of  uplifting  memories 
and  ideals  of  sweet  home  life  ? 

7.  By  this  relentless  grind,  day  and  night,  childhood  is 
made  abnormally  severe,  and  no  opportunity  is  given  for 
training  for  the  intelligent  enjoyment  of  culture  and  leisure. 

Its  regulation.  In  recognition  of  these  evils,  home  studv 
has  been  quite  generally  abandoned  for  primar}'  children, 
and  the  amount  required  for  the  intermediate  grades  is 
reduced.  In  not  a  few  instances  the  requirement  of  home 
study    for    any    grades    has    been    prohibited.      Elsewhere 


1 86  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

graded  schemes  of  requirements  have  been  made.  For 
example,  in  one  place  a  half  hour  was  prescribed  for  the 
third  and  fourth  grades,  an  hour  for  the  fifth  and  sixth, 
an  hour  and  a  half  for  the  seventh  and  eighth,  and  two 
hours  for  higher  grades.  Since  one  child  can  keep  up 
without  any  home  study,  while  another  cannot  with  twice 
the  designated  time,  the  fallacy  of  any  such  prescription 
must  be  obvious.  Studying  by  the  clock  is  poor  business 
an}^vay,  as  is  any  pretense  of  study  when  nature  demands 
that  the  child  should  be  in  bed. 

Study  programs.  A  plan  which  evidently  eliminates 
some  of  these  evils  is  the  study  program.  As  used  in 
Oakland  City,  Indiana,  each  child  is  required  to  make  out 
a  complete  schedule  of  all  time  which  he  is  to  devote  to 
school  tasks,  including  the  periods  when  he  is  not  reciting 
at  school  and  the  study  time  at  home.  This  plan  is  re- 
ported to  have  established  regular  hours  and  regular  habits 
of  study  and  to  have  "  practically  eliminated  the  problem 
of  discipline,"  The  pupils  themselves,  after  two  and  a  half 
years  of  working  by  a  study  program,  reported  as  follows  : 
"  When  following  a  study  program  one  is  never  in  doubt 
about  what  to  do  next "  ;  "I  can  do  Vnore  and  better  work 
than  if  I  studied  in  a  haphazard  fashion  "  ;  "It  keeps 
me  from  spending  too  much  time  on  favorite  subjects  "  ; 
"  Keeps  me  from  changing  tasks  when  I  begin  to  tire  of 
what  I  am  doing";  "I  not  only  have  better  lessons  but 
also  have  more  time  for  leisure  "  ;  "It  proved  so  beneficial 
to  me  in  the  preparation  of  my  lessons  that  I  now  follow 
a  regular  program  for  all  my  work  "  ;  "I  had  the  habit  of 
always  putting  off  my  work  until  I  felt  just  right  for  study, 
and  as  a  result  made  very  poor  grades,  but  since  I  have 
adopted  a  regular  study  program  my  interest  in  my  work 
has  greatly  increased  and  I  am  no  longer  ashamed  of 
my  grades," 


HOME  STUDY  AND  STUDY  PROGRAMS        1S7 

In  carrying  out  this  plan  each  pupil  is  supplied  with  a 
card  containing  on  one  side  blanks  for  his  schedule  to  be 
filled  out  by  each  child  to  suit  his  own  needs.  It  is  made 
out  for  the  term  and  a  copy  filed  with  the  principal.  Pre- 
sumably it  may  be  adjusted  frorn  time  to  time  as  the  pupil 
finds  readjustment  advantageous.  On  the  reverse  of  this 
card  is  printed  the  following: 

DIRECTIONS   FOR  STUDY 

1.  Follow  your  program  regularly.     . 

2.  If  possible,  study  your  lesson  immediately  after  the  assign- 
ment is  made. 

3.  Take  brief  notes  and  afterward  study  by  outline. 

4.  Use  dictionary  and  reference  books  for  points  not  clearly 
comprehended. 

5.  Concentrate  the  mind  so  that  outside  interests  will  not  fre- 
quently disturb  your  study. 

6.  Do  not  try  to  commit  e.xact  words  until  you  understand  their 
content. 

7.  Connect  important  facts  of  the  new  lesson  with  facts  pre- 
viously learned. 

8.  Make  comparisons  and  contrasts  when  possible. 

9.  The  e.xtra  effort  spent  on  preparation  pays  the  greatest 
intellectual  dividend. 

10.  Carefully  review  and  think  over  the  previous  lesson  before 
beginning  the  ne.\t.^ 

Double  periods.  Another  plan  was  developed  at  Newark, 
The  school  day  has  fi\c  main  jx-riods  of  sixty  minutes  each. 

The  first  portion  of  the  period  is  spent  in  recitation.  The  sec- 
ond portion  is  employed  in  conference  or  independent  study  with 
the  teacher,  the  children  being  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  subject. 
It  gives  the  instructor  a  chance  to  know  that  each  child  is  study- 
ing his  special  subject,  as  well  as  to  observe  and  direct  the  methods 

*  See  Reavis,  ScAoo/  Kt~!uc7i<,  June,  1911. 


I88  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

of  study.  The  teacher  who  knows  the  subject,  working  with  the 
children,  can  give  them  some  of  the  trade  secrets  for  handling  the 
same.  He  shows  the  pupils  how  to  study  and  how  to  form  correct 
study  habits.  This  well-directed  functioning  power  leads  the  pupils 
to  confidence  in  self  and  to  personal  initiative.  .  .  .  Concentration 
and  intensive  effort  in  study,  influenced  by  the  aura  of  the  inspired 
teacher,  is  the  outcome  of  the  system. 

After-school  periods.  In  the  hour  following  the  regular 
school  session  the  teachers  arc  at  their  desks  to  confer 
with  the  pupils  who  may  desire  instruction  or  wish  to  study 
after  school.  By  this  plan  it  is  claimed  that  practically  all  the 
dangers  inherent  in  home  study  have  been  eliminated.  Home 
study  itself  is  minimized  or  eliminated  for  the  bright  pupils. 

Segregated  study  plan.  The  elastic  schedule  already  dis- 
cussed includes  the  essentials  of  these  plans  as  regards  the 
work  in  school  and  may  be  combined  with  the  out-of-school 
features  to  advantage.  In  connection  with  it  there  has  been 
developed  a  policy  of  confining  the  study  of  the  "  form  "  sub- 
jects requiring  the  most  intensive  study  to  school  hours  and 
segregating  for  home  work  the  less  formal  study  of  cultin-al 
subjects.  This  plan  seems  to  meet  every  objection  offered 
to  home  study  and  at  the  same  time  utilizes  the  evening 
hours  most  profitably  for  the  student's  progress.  The  plan 
is  as  follows,  subject  to  wide  variations. 

"Form"  subjects.  Time  is  provided  in  the  daily  schedule 
for  the  study  required  in  the  formal  subjects  (mathematics, 
spelling,  grammar,  Latin,  etc.),  as  far  as  possible  under  the 
direct  supervision  of  the  teacher.  This  is  done  either  by 
means  of  the  long  periods  in  which  stucl\-  and  recitation 
are  combined  or  by  means  of  special  study  periods. 

Individual  needs.  In  the  high  school,  where  shifting 
groups  do  not  provide  for  varying  abilities,  the  slower  pupils 
can  secure  additional  time  in  school  for  study  by  taking  fewer 
subjects  and  the   more  lapid   pupil   can  economize  time  by 


HOME  STUDY  AND  STUDY  PROGRAMS        189 

taking  additional  courses.  The  daily  assignment  is  what  the 
average  of  the  class  can  accomplish  in  the  time  allotted, 
and,  as  the  study  is  done  under  the  eye  of  the  teacher,  he 
soon  knows  how  to  gauge  his  requirements  to  the  ability  of 
the  class.  A  deficient  pupil  may  use  out-of-school  time 
to  remedy  some  individual  need  which  has  been  pointed 
out  to  him,  or  an  ambitious  one  may  carry  extra  courses  or 
get  ahead  of  his  class  by  home  study  in  the  formal  sub- 
jects, but  the  regular  policy  for  all  is  to  regard  the  hard, 
grinding  subjects  which  require  intensive  application  as  school 
work,  to  be  finished  during  school  hours  and  put  aside  with 
all  worry  about  them  at  the  end  of  the  school  day. 

Concentration  during  work  hours.  Emphasis  is  placed 
on  the  value  of  hard  concentration  during  the  few  hours  at 
school,  and  there  is  no  pretense  of  it  at  other  times.  There 
must  be  no  evening  study  required  at  the  expense  of  com- 
plete relaxation  and  untroubled  sleep.  The  one  unfailing 
requirement  of  the  child  at  home  is  to  keep  himself  thor- 
oughly fit  for  a  hard  day's  work  at  school.  He  can  get  all 
the  hard  work  there  that  is  good  for  him. 

Knowledge  and  culture  study.  The  study  which  is  segre- 
gated for  the  evening  hours  at  home  is  that  kind  which  is 
introduced  into  the  curriculum  primarily  for  training  in  the 
fine  art  of  the  cultured  use  of  leisure  hours.  The  universal 
tendency  under  ordinary  conditions  has  been  just  the  oppo- 
site of  that  to  be  desired.  The  formal  studies,  which  require 
concentration,  have  been  the  ones  which  the  children  have 
taken  home  for  night  study;  while  the  cultural  studies,  —  lit- 
erature, history,  and  geographical  readings,  —  because  they 
were  easier,  have  been  left  for  the  odd  times  between  classes 
at  school. 

Latitude  in  home-study  requirements.  Assignments  for 
evening  work  arc  made  in  as  broad  a  manner  as  practicable, 
allowing  considerable  latitude  as  to  the  time  at  which  it  is 


I90  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

to  be  done.  This  is  to  allow  freely  for  attendance  upon 
church  meetings,  lectures,  concerts,  and  the  more  wholesome 
social  gatherings  and  other  entertainments  suited  to  the  age 
of  the  children.  Children  cannot  learn  to  select  the  right 
sort  of  amusements  in  preference  to  the  wrong  sort  by  being 
kept  away  from  them  all.  Definite  effort  should  be  made 
to  interest  them  in  the  best  forms  of  entertainments,  and 
lessons  should  be  so  correlated  that  pupils  will  be  brought 
into  sympathetic  appreciation  of  the  finer  opportunities  for 
recreation.  This  may  well  contribute  more  to  good  living 
than  a  considerable  amount  of  class  work. 

Training  for  leisure.  The  actual  study  to  be  done  at  home 
should  be  planned  to  guide  the  children  into  an  abiding  in- 
terest in  the  reading  of  such  history,  travels,  and  literature 
as  contribute  to  lives  of  refinement  and  culture.  It  should  be 
correlated  in  an  interesting  manner  with  the  news  of  the  day 
and  should  lead  to  the  reading  of  the  better  grade  of  daily 
papers  and  magazines  at  home.  It  should  make  intelligible 
and  attractive  the  better  class  of  music,  now  accessible  in 
almost  any  home  by  means  of  the  graphophone.  It  should 
direct  the  pupil's  steps  to  the  galleries  and  museums,  where 
things  worth  while  are  to  be  seen.  Above  all,  it  should  lead 
into  the  enjoyment  of  the  best  literature  —  not  necessarily 
the  best  for  the  teacher  of  literature  but  the  best  for  the 
child.  This  direction  can  be  given  to  the  home  study  by 
dealing  with  these  subjects  of  culture  and  general  knowledge 
in  a  more  vital  and  less  formal  manner. 

Contributions  to  home  life.  For  countless  thousands  the 
whole  home  life  would  be  beautifully  enriched  if  the  teachers 
in  selecting  the  study  for  evening  occupation  would  find 
those  things  into  which  the  whole  family  might  enter.  The 
family  circle  and  its  interests  might  well  be  built  about  the 
interesting  lessons  of  the  school.  In  the  more  intensive 
studies  home  help  is  commonly  a  hindrance  to  the  child  and 


HOME  STUDY  AND  STUDY  PROGRAMS        191 

a  burden  to  the  parents.  In  culture  subjects  it  cannot  but 
prove  a  blessing  to  both.  Stories  of  the  people  who  lived  in 
that  mysterious  long  ago,  geographical  readings  of  the  won- 
derful lands  and  strange  peoples  we  have  never  seen ;  pictures 
and  descriptions  of  those  distant  places  where  the  news  of 
to-day  actually  took  place  ;  the  stories,  the  poems,  the  master- 
pieces of  every  kind  that  the  world  has  enjoyed  and  admired; 
why  should  ncjt  these  be  the  history  and  geography  and  the  lit- 
erature lessons  that  we  assign  for  home  study .''  These  studies 
are  intended  to  adorn  life  and  to  elevate  our  interests  ;  why 
defeat  their  purpose  by  reducing  them  to  a  few  minutes  of 
hasty  cramming  in  of  facts  and  drilling  in  of  outlines  .-*  We 
may  well  keep  the  organizing  of  them  at  a  minimum  and 
the  enriching  of  them  at  a  maximum,  We  may  introduce 
as  much  of  formal  instruction  and  system  as  need  be  in  the 
recitation  work  or  look  to  other  subjects  for  disciplinary 
values,  but  the  surest  way  to  secure  future  cnjovment  of 
refinement,  leisure,  and  higher  standards  of  intelligent  home 
life  is  to  make  them  enjoyable  now. 

School  will  much  more  wholesomely  prepare  for  and  ap- 
proximate real  life  when  a  faithful  day's  work  earns  a  free 
evening ;  when  in  business  hours  we  make  our  living,  but 
after  hours  we  do  our  living;  when  the  day's  work  keeps 
us  apace  with  our  fellows,  but  wise  and  self-directed  use  of 
spare  hours  is  the  means  by  which  we  outstrip  them  ;  when 
the  routine  things  of  life  are  locked  up  in  our  desks  at  the 
close  of  the  day  and  we  take  home  with  us  those  that  we 
may  well  share  and  cnjo)-  with  the  fami]\-  ;  when  for  our 
evenings  we  can  enjoy  together  the  best  things  of  music, 
literature,  art.  and  societv. 

The  argument  that  home  assignments  of  a  definite  and 
compulsory  sort  serve  a  good  purpose  in  keeping  the  child 
off  the  street  and  out  of  bad  company  is  not  only  a  slander 
on   American   homes  but   is   fallacious   from   the  fact  that 


192  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

months  of  dead  evening  grind  in  the  hardest  of  study 
through  the  school  term  is  the  surest  means  of  driving  the 
child  from  the  home  during  the  evenings  of  vacation  and 
holidays.  Training  for  home  life  must  begin  at  the  school 
which  has  done  so  much  to  destroy  it. 

Happily  the  introduction  of  these  better  plans  of  home 
work  and  policies  of  study  do  not  need  to  wait  for  some 
general  "adoption  of  a  system."  In  fact,  a  system  adopted 
would  be  foredoomed  to  failure.  But  every  teacher  can  enter 
more  or  less  completely  into  the  spirit  of  the  situation  and 
thus  work  out  his  solution  of  the  home-study  problem  step 
by  step  without  waiting  for  formal  action. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  What  instances  can  you  cite  of  injury  to  health  from  home 
study  ? 

2.  Find  from  the  several  teachers  of  any  high-school  class  how 
much  time  they  expect  the  pupils  to  spend  on  their  work  out  of 
school.  Find  from  as  many  as  possible  of  the  pupils  or  their 
parents  how  much   time  they  actually  do  spend  on  it. 

3^  From  observation  and  inquiry  try  to  determine  about  what 
per  cent  efficient  is  the  evening  study  of  several  children,  especially 
after  they  begin  to  nod. 

4.  Prepare  a  practical  study  program  for  )-ourself  or  some 
student. 

5.  Under  the  plan  of  segregating  the  formal  subjects  for  study 
wholly  in  schools,  prepare  instructions  to  children  indicating  what 
work  is  to  be  done  in  school  and  what  at  home. 

6.  (~)utline  the  assignments  in  literature  or  Iiislory  for  a  month 
with  the  aim  of  making  the  home  study  as  vital  as  possible  for 
the  child. 

7.  Plan  suggestions  as  to  how  an  uncultured  family  could  share 
in  the  benefits  of  the  child's  work  at  .school.  How  could  you 
present  these  suggestions  in  class  tactfully  ? 


HOME  STUDY  AND  STUDY  PROGRAMS        193 

8.  Analyze  the  usual  effect  of  '"  home  help  '"  in  arithmetic  or 
Latin  lessons.  What  are  the  objections  to  it  ?  Do  the  same  objec- 
tions prevail  as  to  help  in  studying  a  piece  of  literature  or  an 
historical  description  ?  What  are  the  effects  of  parents  working 
with  the  children  on  such  assignments  ? 

READmOS 

Chanxeu.ok.    Class  Teaching  and  Management,  pp.  50,  71. 
Hall-Qukst.    Supervised  Study,  chaps,  i,  ii.  v,  vi. 
HuGHKS  (WiE.VKR).    The  Modern  High  School,  chap.  xi. 
Kic.MJALL  and    Mn<iCK.     How  to  Teach  the   Fundamental    Subjects, 

pp.  135,  200,  227. 
McMuRRV.    How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study,  p.  304. 
Parker.    Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,  chap.  xvi. 
Seelev.    New  School  Management,  pp.  46,  162. 
White.    Art  of  Teaching,  p.  163. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

GETTING   STARTED   RIGHT 

Readiness  of  the  teacher.  It  is  to  be  expected  that 
young  teachers  will  be  in  some  confusion  as  to  what  to  do 
first  in  beginning  the  work  of  the  school,  but  the  delays 
in  getting  down  to  effective  work  in  very  many  schools 
indicate  that  older  teachers  generally  would  prt)fit  by  giving 
considerable  thought  to  the  problems  of  the  first  day.  Cer- 
tainly one's  personal  affairs  should  be  settled  and  well  off 
the  mind  before  the  opening  day  ;  such  things  as  boarding 
arrangements,  unpacking,  and  "'  getting  straightened  out." 
Several  days  devoted  largely  to  making  acquaintances  and 
getting  to  feel  at  home  is  more  than  worth  while  when 
going  among  strangers  to  teach. 

Readiness  of  the  plant.  Whatever  the  size  of  the  school, 
whether  a  one-room  ccnmtr)'  school  or  a  unit  of  a  big  city 
system  ;  whatever  the  amount  of  janitor  service  and  super- 
vision of  buildings  provided,  the  principal  in  charge  must 
make  himself  thoroughly  familiar  with  every  part  of  his 
school  plant  in  advance  of  the  opening  day,  and  long 
enough  in  advance  to  see  that  all  necessary  repairs  and 
attention  are  provided  in  tirrte.  What  the  janitor  or  trustee 
was  supposed  to  have  attended  to  docs  not  hcli)  the  dis- 
order of  the  opening  days.  Necessary  repairs,  cciui])mcnt, 
and  cleaning  must  all  be  disposed  of  before  the  children 
begin  to  demand  attention.  The  princij)al  can  afford  to 
trust  no  one  but  himself  in  knowing  that  things  are  in 
shipshape  for  a  successful  start.  Likewise  each  teacher 
should   give   personal   and   very  careful   attention   to   every 

194 


GETTING  STARTED  RiGHT  195 

detail  of  the  preparation  and  equipment  of  his  own  class- 
room. The  first  days  are  to  be  the  busiest  and  most  critical 
of  the  whole  year,  and  the  wise  teacher  will  not  permit 
himself  to  be  placed  at  any  disadvantage  for  the  lack  of 
foresight  in  the  matter  of  having  things  ready.  There 
must  be  no  getting  ready  for  business  after  business  is 
supposed  to  have  begun.  Where  janitor  service  is  not 
adequate  it  is  an  admirable  plan  to  make  special  friends  of 
a  few  of  the  leading  spirits  among  the  pupils  and  go  with 
them  to  make  the  necessary  preparations. 

Class  rolls.  All  teachers  should  secure  some  days  in 
advance  the  complete  lists  of  the  pupils  who  have  been 
promoted  to  or  detained  in  the  grades  they  are  to  teach. 
New  pupils,  as  far  as  practicable,  should  also  be  assigned 
to  their  grades,  permanently  or  provisionally,  before  the 
first  morning  of  the  term.  Daily  schedules,  signals  to  be 
used,  routine  of  class  movements,  disposition  of  wraps,  etc. 
should  all  be  planned  as  completely  as  possible  and  thor- 
oughly understood  by  every  teacher. 

Course  of  study  interpreted.  Whatever  the  form  of  the 
course  of  study  pro\-idcd,  before  the  first  day  the  teacher 
should  have  taken  lime  to  interpret  it  broadly  into  large 
central  aims  and  the  general  abilities  assumed  and  sought 
for  in  each  grade.  A  characteristic  of  poor  teaching  is  that 
real  aims  are  lost  sight  of  in  the  crowded  trivialities  of  the 
daily  assignments.  By  getting  the  large  aims  clarified  in 
advance  and  the  general  organization  of  the  texts  thoroughly 
in  mind,  one's  work  comes  to  have  much  more  significance, 
and  methods  less  of  stupid  inflexibility.  After  the  burden 
of  the  daily  grind  begins  to  press,  it  is  hard  to  think  in 
terms  of  large  aims  or  to  distinguish  from  the  incidental 
that  which   is  essential. 

First  impressions.  First  impressions  are  too  important 
among  the  educative  factors  in  the  children  to  be  neglected. 


196  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

The  first  impression  that  is  most  valuable  for  teaching  or 
for  discipline  is  that  the  school  is  a  place  for  business. 
However  eloquent  the  new  teacher  may  be,  it  is  not  prob- 
able that  an  inaugural  address  will  contribute  much  to  the 
success  of  his  work.  Mis  ideas  and  his  phrases  may  be 
perfect,  but  what  he  sa)'s  will  ha\'c  much  less  effect  on 
the  pupils'  attitudes  than  what  they  do.  It  is  better  for 
the  children  to  feel  that  they  are  being  put  through  their 
paces  than  that  the  teacher  is.  llie  formal  promulgation 
of  rules  and  policies  serves  as  a  challenge  to  the  chil- 
dren to  try  out  the  strength  of  them.  Telling  about  it  is  a 
futile  way  to  create  the  impression  that  the  school  is  to  be 
a  hive  of  busy  activity.  The  more  effective  way  is  to  have 
everybody  busy,  starting  on  the  jump  when  the  first  assem- 
bly bell  rings  and  keeping  it  up  until  the  ~  regular  time 
for  dismissal.  Authorities  have  a  right  to  question  the 
management  of  a  school  which  requires  three  to  ten  days 
to  get  down  to  regular  work.  During  these  first  days  pupils 
adopt  their  standards  of  application  and  industry  for  the 
year.  Some  of  the  frenzied  hurrying  to  get  over  the  ground 
in  the  last  week  before  final  examinations  should  be 
avoided  by  a  systematically  busy  first  week.  But  a  quick 
get-away  requires  a  thorough  getting  ready. 

Work  of  the  first  days.  The  first  days  should  be  par- 
ticularly important  days  of  actual  teaching.  Lack  of  books, 
instead  of  being  a  valid  excuse  for  early  dismissal  and  get- 
ting nothing  done,  is  a  distinct  teaching  advantage.  It  is 
not  book  assignments  that  are  needed  for  the  first  week  or 
two,  but  a  thorough  reviewing  and  fixing  afresh  of  the  essen- 
tial fundamentals  already  learned  and  assumed  as  a  basis 
of  the  new  year's  work.  Instead  of  starting  off  with  new 
work  and  excusing  one's  failures  all  through  the  year  by 
reflections  on  the  poor  preparation  which  the  class  received 
under  the  former  teacher,  one  should  spend  a  few  days  in 


GETTING   STARTED  RIGHT  197 

testing  out  the  abilities  expected  of  the  pupils,  refreshing  the 
class  on  that  which  has  become  stale  during  vacation,  discov- 
ering individual  deficiencies,  and  directing  the  necessary  drill 
to  remedy  them.  Nor  are  the  books  of  the  last  year  neces- 
sary, for  that  which  is  important  is  not  a  reciting  of  newly 
studied  lessons  but  a  demonstrating  of  abilities  which  can 
be  used  in  connections  different  from  those  in  which  they 
were  learned.  Work  of  this  sort  has  a  distinct  value  in 
the  fact  that  it  focuses  attention  of  teachers  and  pupils 
alike  upon  essentials  ;  it  should  make  perfectly  clear  what 
sort  of  things  are  indispensable  and  thus  serve  as  a  guide 
to  more  effective  subsequent  study.  It  should  help  them 
to  realize  that  the  effort  worth  while  is  not  getting  over 
specified  ground  but  establishing  permanent  abilities  to  do 
definite  things. 

Not  too  many  changes.  However  radical  the  changes 
that  are  to  be  made  in  the  routine  and  management  of 
the  school,  it  is  not  well  to  present  too  many  reforms  to 
the  pupils  on  the  first  day.  Let  established  habits  furnish 
a  working  basis  to  start  on  and  introduce  changes  gradually. 
Let  each  change  have  the  attention  of  the  children  and 
become  fi.xed  as  a  reality  and  habit  before  others  are  too 
much  talked  of.  13istinctly  bad  habits,  to  be  sure,  con- 
sciously low  standards  of  behavior  or  of  cleanliness,  and 
the  like,  should  not  be  allowed  to  reestablish  themselves 
after  the  break-up  incident  to  vacation.  Begin  with  the  best 
that  the  pupils  know,  but  do  not  dissipate  attention  with  more 
reforms  than  they  can  appreciate  or  live  up  to. 

Study  habits.  It  is  a  safe  assumption  that  some  of  the 
very  worst  habits  of  the  class  are  habits  of  study.  Make 
the  first  few  days  contribute  to  better  ideals  and  stand- 
ards of  work.  Impress  upon  pupils  the  value  of  thorough 
methods  of  study,  not  as  arbitrary  tasks  imposed  but  as 
labor  lighteners,  as  means  of  getting  done  most  easily  the 


198  SCHOOL  KFFICIKNCY 

things  that  will  have  to  be  done  some  way.  The  reviews 
of  these  first  days  afford  the  best  object  lessons  for  just 
such  teaching  of  stud)'  methods.  Keep  before  them  the 
thought  that  quality  rather  than  sheer  quantity  of  study 
gets  results. 

A  clean  slate  for  a  bad  record.  A  very  large  contributing 
factor  in  the  conduct  of  the  chronically  troublesome  child 
is  the  notion  he  gets  that  the  teacher  has  '"  got  it  in  for 
him  "  ;  that  once  a  teacher  is  "'  down  on  him,"  whoever  may 
have  been  at  fault  originally,  he  is  suspected  of  all  the  mis- 
doings that  occur  and  never  has  a  "  square  deal  "  again. 
It  is  the  tragic  fate  of  the  criminal  in  miniature.  The  boy 
must  feel  that  so  far  as  the  teacher  is  concerned  he  has  an 
entirely  new  chance  each  term.  It  is  even  best  for  a  new 
teacher  to  take  charge  of  a  class  without  knowledge  of  past 
conduct  records,  so  that  preformed  suspicions  will  not  tinge 
the  most 'impartial  treatment  with  any  insincerity.  The  child 
"  with  a  record  "  is  always  suspicious  of  being  suspected. 
However,  if  a  trouble-maker  is  known  and  knows  that  he 
is  known,  it  is  well  to  win  him  over  at  the  start.  1^'ore- 
stall  mischief  by  making  him  your  friend.  Call  on  him  for 
genuine  assistance  of  any  sort  that  a  child  is  glad  to  render 
in  the  days  before  and  just  after  the  opening  of  school. 
Trust  him  with  important  commissions  and  responsibilities 
and  keep  him  busy  working  yi?r  you.  Nothing  so  calls  forth 
the  best  impulses  of  boy  nature  as  confidence  and  friend- 
ship. One  who  habitually  hates  any  embodiment  of  authority 
will  nevertheless  stand  by  a  friend. 

Getting  in  tune  for  the  day.  Much  of  the  success  of  each 
day,  as  well  as  of  the  year,  depends  on  a  good  start.  The 
refreshing  night's  sleep,  the  invigorating  bath  and  the  nour- 
ishing breakfast,  all  the  wholesome  routine  of  the  resting 
hours  and  the  rising  hour,  contribute  largely  to  the  day's 
work,  and  the  wise  teacher  will  not  neglect  these  factors  in 


GETTING  STARTED   RIGHT  199 

his  pupils'  progress.  Control  of  them  is  through  inspimig 
instruction  in  hygiene,  frjendly  counsel,  and  cooperation  with 
the  home.  But  given  the  right  physical  start,  it  is  no  less 
important  that  the  intellectual  and  emotional  side  of  the  pupil 
should  be  "  feeling  fit,"  Great  speeches  are  made,  great 
poems  are  written,  great  battles  are  won,  and  most  other 
great  things  are  done  in  times  of  enthusiasm  and  inspiration. 
But  the  inspiration  is  not  often  an  accident ;  it  is  designed, 
planned,  and  worked  up  to.  So  the  good  day's  work  needs 
an  emotional  stimulus,  but  the  way  to  get  that  stimulus  is 
to  go  after  it.  Not  merely  a  stimulus  but  a  neural  harmony, 
a  mental  attuning,  a  spiritual  poise,  is  needed.  Some  of  the 
class  are  sure  to  bring  something  of  fretfulness,  discourage- 
ment, or  other  inner  discord  from  home  —  and  emotions  are 
contagious.  Morning  exercises  should  seek  to  smooth  away 
the  friction,  to  afford  a  balm  for  the  irritation,  and  to  set  dis- 
cordant nerves  in  tune.  "  Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the 
savage  breast"  in  school  as  well  as  elsewhere, 

A  moment  of  reverence.  A  moment  of  genuine  reverence 
helps  decidedly  to  give  one  a  renewed  sense  of  values  ;  it 
shows  up  mean  thoughts  in  their  true  aspect ;  it  cleanses 
ideas,  uplifts  ideals,  and  helps  to  re-aline  one's  aims  and 
efforts  with  purposes  that  endure.  He  is  fit  for  a  bigger 
and  a  better  day's  work  who  for  even  one  instant  has  bowed 
his  head  at  the  beginning  of  the  day  and  sincerely  said  : 
"'  Father,  help  me  to  live  this  day  aright."  A  habit  of  be- 
ginning the  day  in  such  manner  has  value  beyond  com- 
putation in  fitting  a  child  for  useful  citizenship,  for  right 
living  and   cffcctixe  work. 

Devotional  (?)  exercises.  The  customary  "devotional  ex- 
ercises "  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  day  have  aimed  for 
such  results  but,  like  much  other  formal  worship,  the  means 
have  defeated  the  end.  They  have  been  anything  but  exer- 
cises in  devotion.    Long  Scripture  readings  and  perfunctory 


200  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

saying  of  prayers  or  droning  of  hymns  while  the  children 
are  making  faces,  passing  notes,  or  doing  anything  but 
praying  and  praising  —  this  hideous  mockery  has  been  the 
daily  inspiration  of  some  school  openings.  Such  sacrilegious 
performances  violate  the  fundamentals  of  both  religion  and 
pedagogy.  It  is  not  surprising  that  protests  against  the  use 
of  Scripture  in  school  have  been  raised  by  atheists,  Jews, 
Catholics,  and  zealous  Protestants  alike,  —  some  because 
they  regard  the  Scripture  as  unworthy  to  be  taught  in  the 
school  and  some  because  they  regard  tlie  schools  unworthy 
to  teach  Scripture. 

State  laws  vary  in  their  attitude  toward  religious  teaching 
in  school,  from  that  of  some  of  the  eastern  states  where  the 
reading  of  a  portion  of  the  Bible  and  repetition  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer  is  required  dail)'  under  penalt)'  of  removal,  to 
that  of  some  of  the  western  states  where  the  conducting  of 
any  religious  exercise  in  school  is  prohibited  under  penalty 
of  the  revocation  of  the  teacher's  license.  Much  heat  of 
intolerance  has  been  generated  by  this  question  in  various 
states,  and  it  is  a  familiar  case  in  the  records  of  civil  and 
educational  courts.  Despite  local  variations,  the  trend  of 
decisions  and  of  legislation  is  toward  a  quite  definite  Amer- 
ican ideal,  which  may  be  expressed  about  as  follows  :  There 
shall  be  no  sectarian  instruction  of  any  sort  given  in  any 
school  maintained  by  public  funds.  There  shall  be  no 
religious  test  or  examination  required  of  any  teacher,  but 
no  teacher  shall  be  allowed  to  wear  any  distinctive  sectarian 
garb  or  engage  in  any  distinctive  sectarian  exercise  while  at 
school.  The  Bible  may  be  read  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  re- 
peated, but  no  pupil  whose  parents  object  may  be  required 
to  participate  in  or  attend  such  exercises.  The  Bible  may 
be  used  as  literature  or  as  historical  material,  provided  no 
pupil  shall  be  required  to  study  it  in  opposition  to  the 
declared  wishes  of  his  parents. 


GETTING  STARTED  RIGHT  201 

Their  aim.  This  is  a  happy  conclusion  and  should  in 
general  result  in  making  the  public  schools  more  and  not 
less  religious.  That  teacher  whose  religious  services  must 
be  either  of  the  offensive  sectarian  sort  or  of  the  mechanical 
perfunctory  sort  would  be  much  more  reverential  in  omitting 
them  entirely.  It  is  not  the  responsibility  of  the  public 
school  to  supply  the  child's  religion  any  more  than  to  buy 
his  shoes,  but  it  is  the  \\\^q'&X.  piivilcge  vouchsafed  to  any 
human  being  to  lead  little  children  into  reverence  and 
spiritual  aspiration. 

Bible  as  literature.  So  far  as  we  defend  the  use  of  the 
Bible  as  literature,  let  us  teach  it  in  the  literature  class  as 
literature.  If  as  history,  teach  it  in  connection  with  history. 
These  considerations  have  nothing  to  do  with  its  use  in 
devotional  exercises.  If  used  there,  it  has  but  one  sort 
of  justification  —  that  it  contributes  to  reverence,  spiritual 
uplift,  ennobling  of  life. 

Routine  or  reverence?  Whatever  else  in  the  school  may 
be  routine,  devotional  exercises  must  not.  Routine  saves 
time,  saves  energ)%  insures  uniformity,  but  eliminates  emo- 
tion and  conscious  attention.  Routine  and  inspiration  are 
psychologically  opposite.  Morning  exercises,  so  far  as  they 
may  be  religious,  should  keep  attention  and  the  appropriate 
emotion  at  a  maximum.  TLmotional  states  arc  the  accompani- 
ment not  so  much  of  instruction  as  of  action.  For  reverence 
there  should  be  a  simple  act  of  bowing  the  head  or  kneeling 
accompanying  a  devotional  thought ;  a  sentence  prayer  for 
guidance,  for  higher  aims  or  for  kinder  feelings  ;  a  formu- 
lation of  childhood's  purest  aims.  A  single  thought,  but 
that  made  vital,  is  better  than  more.  Bible  reading  may 
well  be  of  the  same  sort  —  one  fine  thought  expressive  of  a 
child's  spiritual  aspiration,  a  proverb  of  admonition,  a  glimpse 
of  the  inner  life  which  has  made  Scriptural  characters  im- 
mortal, or  one  sweet  strain  from  the  Psalms.    Mven  bigoted 


202  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

parents  raise  no  objection  to  such  devotions  nor  do  they  care 
as  to  the  creed  of  the  teacher  who  so  teaches  reverence.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  these  exercises  be  conducted  every 
morning  or  at  any  regular  time.  What  is  necessary  is  that 
when  they  are  conducted  they  be  participated  in  reverently 
by  those  present. 

Singing.  Music  is  a  fundamental  expression  of  human 
emotion.  Singing  by  a  school  in  unison,  like  marching  or 
other  concerted  rhythmic  activity,  arouses  an  esprit  dc  corps 
which  means  much  for  cooperation  and  easy  discipline.  The 
primary  essential  is  not  so  much  that  the  tune  be  accurately 
sung  but  that  everyone  take  part.  Artistic  and  harmonious 
music  has  a  large  place  in  the  better  life,  but  when  it  comes 
to  getting  a  school  in  tune  for  the  day's  work,  the  joyously 
abundant  rhythmic  activity  of  all  in  unison  is  the  thing  that 
counts.  Being  able  to  sing  and  to  lead  singing  should  be  as 
much  a  part  of  the  teacher's  work  as  being  able  to  read  and 
to  lead  reading.  One  who  "cannot  sing"  should,  by  his 
example,  make  use  of  the  fact  to  encourage  the  pupil  who 
thinks  that  he  also  cannot  sing  to  join  in  freely  with  the 
others  in  all  concert  singing.  The  adolescent  boy  has  great 
need  to  get  control  of  his  rapidly  changing  cmoti(ins  and 
physical  capacities  and  to  subject  them  to  social  standards 
and  usages.  His  changing  voice  is  among  these  yet  uncon- 
trolled forces,  and  the  school  song  is  among  the  finest  means 
of  socializing  both  voice  and  boy.  The  singing,  of  course, 
must  not  be  forced  upon  him,  but  it  is  a  great  thing  to  in- 
spire such  a  boy  with  the  spirit  of  song.  School  singing, 
expressive  of  school  spirit  and  cliikl  life,  is  a  very  different 
thing  from  singing  lessons  and  should  not  be  dependent  upon 
instruction.  The  former  is  related  to  the  latter  much  as 
animated  conversation  is  to  a  grammar  lesson.  Patriotism, 
loyalty,  school  pride,  and  every  social  quality  appropriate  to 
childhood  can  be  contributed  to  by  means  of  school  singing. 


SuilAI, I/F.I)  MoKNlN't".   KXlRtlSlS 

Two  scenes  fnmi  "  I  liotherhood."  a  plav  writ  (en  and  staged  by  the  eighth 
jfrade  Ini   ihc  I'lnmis  \\  .  I'arker  Scliuol 


GETTING   STARTED   RIGHT  203 

Educative  and  socializing  exercises.  Devotional  and 
musical  exercises  should  be  very  brief,  particularly  if  fre- 
quent, but  the  range  of  exercises  appropriate  for  the  open- 
ing of  the  day  is  practically  infinite.  "  School  hour  "  may  be 
conducted  occasionally  for  the  general  discussion  of  any 
questions  for  the  good  of  the  whole  school,  as  to  its 
internal  organization,  standards  of  conduct,  physical  envi- 
ronment, or  interscholastic  contests.  Current  news  and 
movements  of  local  importance  may  be  effectively  pre- 
sented ;  public  issues  which  press  and. people  are  discussing, 
anniversary  celebrations  of  local  and  general  importance, 
worthy  causes  for  which  unselfish  propagandists  are  seeking 
to  develop  a  public  consciousness,  or  the  frequent  relief 
funds  for  which  public  contributions  are  asked.  It  may 
not  be  desirable  that  the  school  should  directly  collect 
funds  for  many  of  these  causes,  but  the  nature  of  the 
cause  or  tlie  need  may  well  be  made  clear  to  the  children. 
Any  of  the  minor  "  special  day "  celebrations  may  be 
condensed  into  morning  exercises.  Special  music,  talks 
of  an  interesting  sort  by  teachers  or  visitors,  may  occa- 
sionally occupy  the  morning-exercise  period,  but  it  should 
not  be  regarded  as  a  time  for  addresses.  It  is  rather  an 
opportunity  for  cooperative  activity.  Methods  for  making 
it  such  and  an  abundance  of  illustrative  material  have  been 
admirably  set  forth  in  various  publications.  The  Second 
Year  Book  of  the  Francis  W.  Parker  School,  entitled 
"  The  Morning  Exercise  as  a  Socializing  Influence,"  gives 
"  Historical  Methods  in  Arithmetic,"  "The  Great  Ice  Sheet," 
"  Cicero,"  "A  Study  of  Bridges,"  "  The  Chemistry  of  Water," 
as  some  of  the  striking  toj^ics  presented  at  this  school  by 
some  of  the  classes  in  morning  exercises.  Literary,  musical, 
or  dramatic  eiUcrtaiiinient  of  the  whole  school  bv  various 
grades  or  special  groujjs  in  rotation  is  a  most  effective 
means   of   keeping    the    interest    in    these    occasions   at   a 


204  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

maximum.  The  educative  value  to  the  group  presenting 
such  an  instructive  exercise,  as  well  as  the  socializing  value 
to  the  whole  school,  is  beyond  calculation.  A  good  speci- 
men of  group  work  of  this  sort  is  the  little  play,  "  Brother- 
hood," written  by  an  eighth  grade  of  the  Francis  W.  Parker 
school  on  the  theme  of  the  Peasant  Revolt  of  1381,  which 
they  had  been  studying.  The  children  conceived  the  char- 
acters and  situations,  wrote  the  lines,  arranged  the  scenes, 
and  staged  the  play  as  a  morning  exercise  for  the  school. 
From  the  Year  Hook  mentioned  ahoNc  we  cjuote  : 

The  morning  exercise  is  a  common  meeting  ground  ;  it  is  the 
family  altar  of  the  school  to  which  each  brings  his  offerings  —  the 
fruits  of  his  observations  and  studies,  or  the  music,  literature,  and 
art  that  delight  him  ;  a  place  where  all  cooperate  for  the  pleasure 
and  well-being  of  the  whole ;  where  all  contribute  to  and  share 
the  intellectual  and  spiritual  life  of  the  whole ;  where  all  bring 
their  best  and  choicest  experiences  in  the  most  attractive  form  at 
their  command. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Prepare  a  detailed  plan  for  keeping  the  pupils  of  a  given 
room  busy  for  full  time  the  first  three  days  of  the  session,  assum- 
ing that  they  are  not  provided  with  books  for  advanced  study. 

2.  List  the  changes  you  think  you  would  make  in  taking  charge 
of  a  given  school  and  indicate  which  of  these  you  would  attempt 
to  inaugurate  on  the  first  da)'. 

3.  Indicate  what  you  think  a  new  teacher  coming  into  your 
community  should  do  with  reference  to  getting  started  right  with 
certain  bad  boys  that  you  know. 

4.  Plan  several  opening  exercises  for  the  whole  school  along 
different  lines,  as  (a)  devotional,  led  by  the  teacher ;  (/>)  musical, 
by  the  teachers  and  outsiders ;  (r)  dramatic,  by  the  fifth  grade ; 
(d)  current  events,  by  a  .seventh  grade ;  (e)  musical  and  literary, 
by  some  high-school  group ;  (/)  historical,  by  some  group  of 
pupils ;  (^)  by  some  business  or  professional  leader  or  represen- 
tative of  local  government. 


GETTING  STARTED  RIGHT  205 

READENGS 

Adlek.    Moral  Instruction  of  Children. 
Bagley.    Classroom  Management,  chap.  ii. 
CoE.    Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  chap.  xx. 
Cronsox.    Pupil  Self-Government,  chap.  vi. 
DlNSMORE.    Teaching  a  District  School,  chap.  i. 
George.    Character  Building,  \'ols.  I  and  II. 
Houghton.    Stories  and  Exercises  for  Opening  School. 
Lincoln.    Everyday  Pedagogy,  chaps,  v,  viii. 
Patriuge.    The  Quincy  Methods,  chap.  ii. 

Sadler.    Moral  Instruction  and  Training  in  Schools,  Vols.  I  and  II. 
Sallsiu'RV.    School  Management,  p.  94. 
Seeley.    a  New  School  Management,  chap.  iv. 
White.    School  Management,  p.  295  ff. 

The  Religious  Education  Association,  Proceedings  Second  Annual  Con- 
vention, Parts  V'l  and  VII. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
ROUTINE 

Pros  and  cons.  \\'e  are  told  that  "There  arc  at  present 
two  opposing  theories  of  school  management.  The  advo- 
cates of  one  theory  protest  against  anything  that  resembles 
a  military  organization  of  the  schools.  The  advocates  of 
the  other  theory  favor  some  measure  of  reversion  to  the 
old-time-school  fashion  of  rigid  discipline  and  machine- 
like organization." 

Arguments  in  behalf  of  the  one  theory  or  the  other  are 
on  a  par  with  the  classic  rural  debates  on  whether  the  horse 
or  the  cow  is  the  more  useful  animal  to  man.  The  "  horse- 
ites  "  and  the  "  cow-ites  "  were  no  more  determined  in  their 
battle  array  than  ha\-c  been  some  of  the  ad\-ocates  of  "  per- 
fect machinelike  organization  "  in  oj^position  to  the  advo- 
cates of  "  spontaneous  individual  initiative."  Similarly  we 
have  had  the  contentions  of  the  "word-method"  advocates 
versus  the  "  sentence  method  "  ;  the  "  Grube  method  "  ver- 
sus the  "  Speer  method  "  ;  and  in  every  aspect  of  education 
we  have  had  these  contests  between  those  who  insist  that 
all  is  black  and  those  who  hold  that  all  is  white.  The 
truth,  of  course,  is  that  the  horse  is  better  for  driving  and 
the  cow  for  milking ;  that  sentence  reading  accomplishes 
some  things,  word  reading  some  others,  and  ]:)h()nic  and 
literal  analysis  of  words  some  other  things.  Some  things  are 
black,  some  are  white,  some  are  both,  and  some  are  neither. 

So,  in  school  management,  mechanical  routine  is  just  as 
essential  at  times  as  its  absence  is  at  other  times.  It  is 
not  a  question  as  to  whether  we  will  build  by  the  hammer 

206 


ROUTINE  207 

method  or  by  the  saw  method.  When  we  need  to  drive 
nails  we  will  use  the  hammer,  and  when  boards  are  to  be 
cut  off  wc  will  prefer  the  saw.  In  all  life  economy  there 
arc  many  things  to  be  reduced  to  routine  and  habit  as 
quickly  and  as  completely  as  possible.  There  are  other 
matters  which  can  be  intelligently  dealt  with  only  by 
constant  attention  and  judgment  —  the  antithesis  of  habit. 
Habit  effects  the  same  marvelous  economies  in  the  life 
of  a  school  group  that  it  does  in  an  individual.  There  is 
the  same  need  for  and  the  same  value  in  class  routine  as  in 
personal  habits  and  the  same  laws  of  habit  formation  prevail. 

Function  of  routine.  The  practical  question  for  the 
teacher  is,  What  activities  should  be  reduced  to  routine  ? 
Manifestly,  all  those  which  are  to  be  frequenth'  repeated 
in  an  identical  manner  —  those  in  which  there  is  no  vary- 
ing question  as  to  what  is  to  be  done  or  how  it  is  to  be 
done  ;  in  which  the  best  method  may  be  determined  once 
for  all  and  subsequently  it  remains  but  to  repeat  the  process 
with  the  least  expenditure  of  thought  or  time. 

Furthermore,  it  should  be  understood  that  wisely  im- 
posed military  routine  does  not  lessen  the  initiative  or 
moral  responsibility  of  the  pupil.  Neither  is  there  a  ten- 
dency for  all  management  to  become  mechanical  because 
some  aspects  of  it  are  reduced  to  routine.  The  effect  of 
habit  in  life  economy  is  to  relieve  the  judgment  from  the 
supervision  of  fixed  details  that  it  may  be  free  to  direct 
the  changing  factors.  So  wise  routine  releases  the  atten- 
tive judgment  of  teacher  and  pupils  for  higher  matters. 
Judgment  cannot  be  e\cry  where.  If  pcrfrmctor)>  via  iters 
arc  not  reduced  to  routine,  matters  w/iie/i  require  judgineut 
ivill  inevitably  beeonie  perfunetoiy.  Human  nature  has 
ordained  that  botli  habit  and  judgment  icill  function  in 
the  determination  of  conduct,  l^fficiency  must  see  to  it 
that   each   serves   wJiere   it   is   most   needed. 


208  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

The  problems  of  organization,  grouping,  promotions,  grad- 
ing, and  schedule,  already  discussed,  involve  certain  varying 
factors  as  we  have  seen  and  their  purpose  is  defeated  by 
mechanizing  them.  Routine  problems,  dealing  with  con- 
stant factors,  are  such  as  the  passing  in  and  out  of  classes, 
passing  to  the  blackboard,  collecting  and  distributing  wraps, 
papers,  books,  or  pencils  ;  keeping  desks  and  room  in  order, 
etc.  Such  things  should  require  no  judgment  of  attention 
from  teacher  or  pupil,  except  to  establish  the  routine  method 
of  doing  them  and  to  prevent  any  variation  from  it. 

Laws  of  routine.  The  following  well-established  laws 
of  habit  apply  fully  to  the  establishing  and  maintaining 
of  routine  : 

1.  In  establishing  the  habit  or  routine  it  is  essential  that 
the  learner  have  a  c/cczr  idea  {a)  of  the  thing  to  be  done  ; 
(p)  of  the  reason  for  doing  it  —  and  this  should  be  one  that 
appeals  to  him  as  a  sufficient  motive  for  doing  it ;  (r)  of  the 
best  way  of  doing  it. 

2.  There  must  then  be  \ki^  pciforuiaiicc  of  the  act  (a)  with 
entire  attentioji  to  the  process  ;  (/')  with  complete  accuraey 
in  every  detail,  defects  being  noted  and  eliminated  at  each 
repetition. 

3.  As  mechanical  accuracy  increases  {a)  effort  zuill  de- 
crease, and  {b)  attentioji  should  and  inevitably  will  disappear. 
The  goal  is  antoinatic  action  with  unfailing  precision. 

4.  It  is  essential  (a)  that  the  process  be  invariably  the 
same  ;  (/;)  its  parts  in  the  same  sequence  ;  (c)  that  atten- 
tion be  recalled  to  rectify  any  variation  or  inaccuracy  which 
may  occur. 

Let  us  apply  these  principles  to  a  concrete  and  typical 
case  of  initiating  routine  —  the  matter  of  passing  notebooks 
or  exercises. 

An  illustration.  Allow  the  children  to  bring  up  their 
papers   once   or  twice   without   plan.     Return   them   in   the 


ROUTINE  209 

same  unorganized  manner.  Note  the  total  time  consumed. 
Have  the  pupils  multiply  the  number  of  minutes  thus  used 
by  the  number  of  members  in  the  class,  and  that  product  by 
the  probable  number  of  sets  of  papers  to  be  taken  up  and 
returned  during  a  week,  and  that  by  the  weeks  in  the 
session.  This  total  will  in  some  cases  amount  to  the  time 
of  the  whole  class  for  a  week  or  of  a  single  individual  for  an 
entire  school  year.  Considering  the  irritation  and  confusion 
and  the  loss  of  the  teacher's  time  in  handling  the  papers, 
such  results  do  not  exaggerate  the  facts. 

Now  let  the  class,  thus  vividly  conscious  of  the  need, 
propose  better  plans  and  after  full  discussion  tr)'  out  that 
which  they  prefer.  With  just  a  little  guidance  by  question 
and  suggestion  they  will  hit  upon  the  best.  Every  pupil 
must  fully  understand  the  j^lan.  I'^or  example,  this  may  be 
the  plan  decided  upon.  Each,  pupil  at  the  left  of  the  room 
passes  his  paper  to  his  neighbor  on  his  r'v^ht, /(7i'e  up.  This 
pupil  places  his  own  on  top,  face  up,  and  passes  the  two  to 
his  right-hand  neighbor,  who  also  puts  his  on  top,  face  up. 
This  is  repeated  until  each  pupil  in  the  right  row  has  all  the 
papers  from  his  line  in  the  order  in  which  their  owners  sit. 
The  rear  pupil  of  the  right  row  then  comes  forward  with  his 
pile,  face  up,  and  each  right-end  pupil  puts  his  pile  on  top, 
face  up.  The  teacher  checks  them  through,  turning  each 
face  down,  then  inverting  the  whole  pile  they  are  exactly  in 
the  original  order.  They  are  then  returned  by  a  pupil  pass- 
ing to  each  right-end  pupil  the  number  of  papers  belonging 
to  that  row.  These  take  their  own  from  the  toj)  and  pass 
the  pile  to  the  left. 

After  a  very  few  trials  the  largest  class  can  collect  or 
distribute  the  ixqx'rs  in  half  a  minute  without  stopping  the 
recitation  to  do  it. 

W^hile  the  practice  is  going  on  and  all  are  leaving  attention 
the  i)rocess  becomes  beautifully  quick  and  efficient.   But  next 


2IO  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

day  or  next  week  someone  will  not  be  quite  ready  when  the 
signal  to  pass  the  papers  is  given.  One  faces  his  paper  down 
or  puts  it  beneath  the  pile  as  it  passes  or  carelessly  drops 
the  pile.  A  half  minute  to  two  minutes  is  lost  to  every  mem- 
ber of  the  class  because  some  one  individual  did  not  do  his 
part  well.  Twenty  to  sixty  minutes  is  lost  to  the  group  —  but 
a  forceful  lesson  on  the  meaning  of  cooperation  is  taught. 

Results.  After  a  few  days  the  process  is  automatic. 
Some  of  the  results  may  be  summed  up  thus  : 

1.  A  large  amount  of  time  actually  saved  during  the  year. 

2.  An  orderly  spirit  which  contributes  to  good  discipline 
and  avoids  many  of  the  beginnings  of  trouble. 

3.  Genuine  pleasure  to  the  children,  who  always  enjoy  a 
certain  amount  of  military  routine. 

4.  A  certain  esprit  dc  corps  arising  from  good  team- 
work. These  two  values  (3  and  4)  are  especially  noticeable 
in  marching. 

5.  Most  effective  training  in  cooperative  self-government. 

6.  An  object  lesson  in  the  origin  and  value  of  law  and 
civic  government.  A  miniature  but  genuine  society  in*which 
is  demonstrated  the  importance  of  every  member  doing  his 
part  faithfully,  the  interdependence  of  the  individual  and 
the  group,  the  meaning  of  good  citizenship. 

7.  Development  of  the  pupil's  initiative  and  judgment  in 
planning  in  a  large,  unselfish  way  for  the  welfare  of  the 
group  as  a  whole. 

8.  An  object  lesson  in  the  psychology  of  habit  formation 
which,  under  the  teacher's  further  guidance,  may  be  trans- 
ferred as  an  ideal  to  man\-  study  habits  and  life  problems. 

Pupil  initiative.  Next  let  the  cliildreii  select  other  school 
processes  which  ought  to  be  reduced  to  mechanical  routine. 
Their  free  discussions  will  soon  fix  upon  those  activities 
which  should  be  mechanized  and  distinguish  those  which 
cannot   or   should    not.     They    will    determine    with    much 


ROUTINE  211 

ingenuity  just  the  series  of  movements  which  should  enter 
into  each  process  to  make  it  most  economical  and  efficient. 
They  will  readily  appreciate  the  laws  of  habit  formation  and 
come  to  apply  them  consciously.  The  objections  that  me- 
chanical organization  disregards  the  individuality  of  the  child, 
that  it  is  imposed  from  without,  that  it  discourages  spon- 
taneous effort,  or  that  it  is  the  antithesis  of  judgment,  are 
all  meaningless  when  routine  is  thus  established  tJiroitgh 
the   initiative  and  judgment  of  the  pupils. 

Children  are  equipped  with  all  the  powers  of  judgment 
and  all  the  desire  for  social  welfare  that  routine  affairs  of 
school  life  demand.  If  the  class  has  not  had  experience  of 
other  than  monarchical  government,  they  will  need  caution 
against  going  too  fast  and  attempting  too  much.  The 
teacher's  broader  view  may  well  steer  the  discussions  away 
from  wrong  conclusions  without  actual  intrusion,  but  the 
principle  is  valid  that  nothing  should  be  told  them  that  they 
can  reasonably  find  out  for  themselves.  As  in  teaching 
arithmetic,  it  is  better  that  they  should  try  out  a  wrong 
method  and  prove  that  it  is  wrong  than  to  accept  a  better 
one  unchallenged  on  authority. 

The  educative  values  of  orderly  debate  —  consulting  to- 
gether under  parliamentary  restrictions  for  the  general  good 
—  will  be  readily  appreciated.  The  genuineness  of  the 
debate  and  the  sense  of  responsil)ility  are  far  more  impor- 
tant than  the  remote  chance  that  the  teacher  may  have  a 
better  plan  of  the  routine  than  the  children  can  reach  with 
the  aid  of  his  occasional  hints. 

Persistency.  It  is  not  well  to  attempt  too  manv  inno- 
vations at  once.  If  the  children  have  had  a  pleasant  taste  of 
initiating  routine  and  are  keen  to  solve  other  problems  "  for 
the  good  of  our  school,"  tliev  will  readily  detect  the  occa- 
sions of  undue  confusion,  and  be  ready  at  any  designated 
time    with    proposals    for    improvement.    As    each    plan    is 


212  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

adopted,  provision  sliould  be  made  for  its  unfailing  applica- 
tion. Monitors  elected  by  the  class  are  perhaps  the  best 
agents  for  insisting  upon  the  faithful  performance  of  the 
plan  adopted.  But  the  best  monitors  are  human  and  fallible, 
and  laxness  is  more  than  likely  to  creep  in  before  the  per- 
formance becomes  an  automatic  habit.  Begin  with  the  defi- 
nite warning  that  once  a  routine  plan  has  been  inaugurated 
it  must  never  be  violated.  The  ever-present  excuse  that 
"this  time  doesn't  count"  must  be  forever  disposed  of  be- 
fore it  is  offered.  Back  of  the  monitors  stands  the  teacher 
ready  to  remind,  to  encourage,  to  stimulate  when  they  grow 
weary,  and  ready  in  the  last  resort  to  compel  the  pupils' 
obedience  to  their  own  plans  and  laws. 

The  more  difficult  lesson  of  life  is  not  the  mere  adopting 
of  good  resolutions  in  times  of  enthusiasm,  but  the  eternal 
vigilance  and  incessant  effort,  in  times  of  weariness  or  impa- 
tience, which  are  necessar}'  to  convert  those  good  resolu- 
tions into  stepping-stones  to  success  in  this  world  instead 
of  paving-stones  for  a  worse  place,  as  in  the  popular  prov- 
erb regarding  good  resolutions.  More  important  than  the 
momentary  judgment  as  to  what  one  ought  to  do  is  the  un- 
flagging determination  to  do  what  one  ought,  whether  he 
wants  to  or  not. 

Pending  the  deliberations  and  formal  action  of  the  children 
and  at  any  time  when  their  control  may  fail  of  efficiency,  the 
teacher's  hand  remains  on  the  helm.  Authority  comes  to 
the  class  only  so  far  as  they  can  and  do  use  it  wisely.  Be- 
ware of  "  turning  over  the  routine  "  to  the  juipils. 

Fire  drills.  The  routine  fire  drill  is  primarily  a  measure 
of  precaution  for  the  safety  of  the  children,  though  it  is 
admirable  training  in  cooperation  and  contains  an  exciting 
military  element  which  the  pupils  immensely  enjoy.  The 
purpose  and  exact  plan  are  fully  explained  to  the  pupils, 
with   the   full   understanding    that   they   will   be    frequently 


ROUTINE  213 

drilled  although  a  fire  will  probably  never  occur.  At  the 
given  signal,  which  must  be  very  clear  and  unmistakable, 
selected  monitors  run  to  the  exits  and  make  sure  that  they 
are  wide  open,  and  then  stand  by  to  keep  down  excitement 
and  to  help  any  little  one  who  might  stumble.  Teachers 
give  their  classes  the  signals  to  turn,  rise,  and  march,  with 
ordinary  composure.  Classes  march  out  in  the  predeter- 
mined order,  little  ones  and  girls  first  always.  Ever^'  pupil 
keeps  in  line  and  in  step.  There  must  be  no  rush  or  break 
at  any  point  in  or  out  of  the  building.  After  pausing  at  a 
safe,  designated  distance  from  the  building,  signals  are  given 
and  the  return  is  in  the  same  good  order.  A  school  of  a 
thousand  pupils  may  be  thus  emptied  in  two  minutes  or  less. 
If  every  child  were  taught  these  fire  drills,  even  though 
his  own  school  were  absolutely  fireproof,  theater  panics 
could  hardly  occur  in  the  next  generation.  It  should  be 
made  second  nature,  in  case  of  alarm,  to  keep  calm,  take 
one's  turn,  and  pass  quietly. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  various  school  activities  which  you  think 
should  be  reduced  to  routine. 

2.  Make  a  similar  list  of  those  that  should  not  be  made  rou- 
tine and  indicate  for  each  at  least  one  varjing  factor  which  makes 
routine  unwise. 

3.  Make  a  study  of  the  principles  of  habit  formation  and 
determine  to  what  extent  they  are  applicable  to  the  routine  of 
the  school  groups. 

4.  Do  you  know  of  any  case  in  which  children  seriously  under- 
took to  solve  a  problem  of  management  in  which  their  decision 
was  unwise.^    Analyze  the  probable  causes  of  their  mistake. 

5.  From  the  cases  of  which  you  know  or  can  learn,  determine 
whether  children  tend  to  be  too  severe  or  too  lenient  in  governing 
themselves. 


214  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

6.  Calculate  the  waste  in  time  through  the  lack  of  economical 
routine  in  some  classroom  under  )-our  observation.  Make  a  similar 
detailed  estimate  for  the  whole  schook 

READINGS 

Baglev.    Classroom  Management,  chaps,  i-iii. 

CoLVix.    The  Learning  Process,  chap.  xi. 

DuTTON.    School  Management,  p.  137. 

Pyle.    Outlines  of  Educational  Psychology,  chaps,  x-xii. 

RowE.    Habit  Formation  and  the  Science  of  Teaching,  chap.  xii. 

Thouxdike.    Principles  of  Teaching,  chap.  viii. 

Consult  any  good  psychology  on  the  laws  of  habit. 


CHAPTER  XX 

ELIMINATING  WASTE  IN    TEACHING  AND  STUDY 

Some  types  of  waste.  The  prime  essential  of  all  good 
management  is  elimination  of  waste.  In  school  the  great- 
est wastes  as  well  as  the  greatest  values  are  not  in  matters 
of  organization  or  the  material  things  but  in  teaching  and 
study.  While  these  are  not  properly  within  the  scope  of 
this  volume,  a  few  striking  aspects  of  the  waste  problem  may 
be  outlined  here  without  unduly  digressing  into  the  field  of 
teaching  methods.     Some  of  these  forms  of  waste  are  : 

1.  Teaching  subject  matter  which  lacks  practical  value, 

2.  Teaching  without  clear  aims  and  plans. 

3.  Teaching  without  systematic  check  upon  deficiencies 
and  attainments. 

4.  Continuing  to  teach  a  pupil  what  he  already  adequately 
knows. 

5.  Teaching  without  insuring  the  use  and  retention  of 
that  which   is  taught. 

6.  Teaching  without  training  in  the  art  of  economical 
study. 

7.  Drudgery  in  cither  teacliing  or  study. 

Useless  material.  The  burden  of  most  recent  discus- 
sions of  "  waste  in  education  "  has  been  the  need  for  a 
reorganization  of  tlic  curriculum  by  the  elimination  of  all 
antiquated  materials  and  all  that  is  not  essentially  practical. 
It  is  very  positively  asserted  by  some  of  our  best  recent 
writers  that  no  subject  and  no  topic  of  any  subject  can 
justly  be  retained  excejit  on  the  ground  of  its  practical  or 
vocational   value.     It   is   now  quite  generally  conceded   that 

215 


2i6  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

subjects  of  practical  importance  have  no  less  disciplinary 
values  than  those  which  are  inherently  of  no  direct  use, 
and  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  take  the  same  attitude 
with  reference  to  the  cultural  values,  namely,  that  the  most 
practical  subjects  are  the  most  cultural.  The  choice  of 
materials  must  be  left  largely  to  the  makers  of  textbooks 
and  curricula,  but  tJw  educative  values  derived  from  any 
given  topic  will  still  vary,  both  in  kind  and  degree,  tlirough 
the  zvhole  range  of  child  capacities,  mainly  according  to 
the  ideals  and  efficiency  of  the  teacher.  I'ractical  values 
are  at  least  more  demonstrable,  more  definite,  and  more 
certain  to  be  of  social  service. 

Lack  of  aim.  A  more  serious  waste  thus  arises  from 
not  appreciating  the  educative  significance  or  i)lanning 
the  educative  processes  in  the  topics  one  does  teach.  In 
any  lesson  which  lacks  aim  and  plan,  the  getting  of  re- 
sults is  a  mere  matter  of  chance.  Teachers  too  coVnmonly 
assume  that  the  ])lanning  has  been  done  in  the  textbook 
and  that  their  dut\'  is  but  to  follow  the  book,  blindly 
trusting  to  some  magic  of  the  printed  word  to  do  the 
teaching.  Many  modern  books  do  plan  their  topics  most 
admirably,  but  it  is  little  they  can  do  toward  planning  the 
teaching.  Neither  is  it  possible  for  a  WTiter  on  methods  to 
prescribe  a  universal  plan  for  all  lessons  or  for  all  lessons 
of  a  given  type  or  even  for  all  lessons  on  a  given  topic. 
Ready-made  plans  in  the  educational  journals  or  provided 
by  auth(jrities  have  their  value  for  suggestion.  They  are 
useful  models  for  study  and  afford  a  convenient  means  of 
making  an  observation  of  the  writer's  method  when  an 
actual  visit  to  his  classroom  would  be  impracticable.  One 
may  adojjt  and  adapt  ideas  freel\-  from  all  these  sources,  but 
only  a  wooden  sort  of  teacher  can  teach  another's  plans 
outright.  It  is  not  the  plan,  but  the  making  of  it,  that 
betters  one's  teaching. 


ELIMINATING  WASTE  IN  TEACHING  217 

Planning  lessons.  Thorough  planning  of  a  lesson  or  a 
group  of  lessons  should  include  the  following  points  : 

1.  Aim.  A  definite  idea  of  the  results  or  educative 
values  to  be  attained  by  the  lesson.  These  should  be  in 
terms  of  changes  to  be  brought  about  in  the  pupils ;  such 
as  increased  skill  of  a  specific  sort,  new  interests,  moral  or 
appreciative  attitude,  study  habit,  or  a  knowledge  of  special 
facts.     This  is  the  teacher  s  aim. 

2.  Motivation.  A  clear  notion  of  the  motive  which  it  is 
expected  will  impel  the  children  to  the  particular  self-activity 
by  which  the  educative  result  aimed  for  can  be  attained  ;  to- 
gether with  the  incentive  or  device  by  which  the  teacher 
assumes  that  this  motive  will  be  brought  into  play  and  the 
activity  assured.  This  would  have  the  form  of  a  statement 
of  the  pupil's  problem  or  desire,  and  hence  is  a  statement 
of  the  pupil's  aim.  Psychologically,  desires  are  subjective 
states,  but  they  are  aroused  or  known  only  with  reference  to 
their  objects  ;  therefore  this  statement  should  be  objective. 
It  should  state  tJic  thing  the  pupil  wants  or  wants  to  do. 
Ordinarily  the  same  motive  is  not  equally  active  or  the  same 
incentive  equally  effective  for  all  the  members  of  a  class. 
Therefore  a  teacher  should  give  separate  consideration  to  the 
probable  individual  aims  or  different  reactions  of  exceptional 
individuals. 

3.  Type  and  steps  of  lesson.  The  foregoing  essentials,  the 
teacher's  aim  and  the  pupil's  aim.  will  determine  the  type 
of  lesson  to  be  used,  which  is  primarily  the  kind  of  think- 
ing or  effort  to  be  required  of  the  child.  This  in  turn  must 
be  resolved  into  the  several  specific  acts  or  steps  of  the  lesson 
by  which  the  pupils  will  proceed  from  their  present  interests 
and  attainments  to  the  results  sought  in  the  teacher's  aim. 
The  teacher's  aim,  or  the  end  sought,  determines  the  type 
of  lesson  to  be  used;  while  the  pupil's  aim,  or  the  motivation, 
will  largely  determine  the  method  to  be  used.    The  steps  of 


2i8  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

the    Ifssoii    must   consist    in  pupil-activity  —  not    topics    or 
teacher-performance. 

4.  For  motivating  each  of  the  steps  of  the  lesson  the 
teacher  should  plan  some  pivotal  question  or  problem  for 
solution. 

5.  Apparatus,  illustrative  materials,  references,  and  data 
to  be  used  in  the  lesson  should  be  prepared  as  part  of  the 
planning. 

6.  The  assignment  of  further  work  to  be  done  by  the 
pupils  needs  to  be  carefully  planned.  This  is  tlie  principal 
means  of  motivating  successful  study. 

Value  of  writing  plan.  The  writing  out  of  the  plan  of 
the  lesson  serves  mainly  to  clarify  the  teacher's  own  ideas. 
One  seldom  realizes  how  vague  his  thoughts  are  until  he 
attempts  to  commit  them  to  writing.  For  a  \-oung  teacher, 
particularly  one  in  training,  plan-writing  is  fraught  with  the 
richest  results  in  better  understanding  of  children  and  of 
educative  processes.  It  is  an  invaluable  connecting  link 
between  the  tlieoretical  and  the  practical  in  pedagogy. 

Written  plan  a  guide  to  criticism.  The  plan,  when  written, 
serves  very  slightlx"  as  a  guide  in  the  actual  teaching  —  it  is 
the  plan  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  which  must  direct  the 
class  work  —  but  it  is  still  important  as  a  basis  of  supervisory 
criticism.  The  only  rational  basis  of  criticizing  what  a  teacher 
does  is  a  knowledge  of  wliat  the  teacher  is  tr\ing  to  do. 
Even  an  expert  supervisor  will  comment  to  little  advantage 
while  judging  a  lesson  in  terms  of  what  lie  himself  would 
have  done  with  that  subject  matter.  By  having  before  him 
the  teacher's  written  statement  of  aims,  motives,  and  steps 
intended,  he  may  intelligently  distinguish  between  errors  of 
aim  and  faults  of  execution. 

Form  of  plan.  The  form  of  the  written  plan  is  of  little 
consequence.  The  essentials  already  enumerated  should  stand 
out  clearly  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  and  before  the  eye  of 


ELIMINATING  WASTE  IN  TEACHING  219 

the  supervisor.  For  convenience  and  mutual  understand- 
ing it  is  well  for  a  supervisor  and  teachers  to  agree  upon 
a  compact  and  easy  arrangement  of  the  essentials.  Details 
ought  always  to  be  left  to  the  initiative  of  the  individual. 
The  arrangement  of  a  plan  is  largely  a  diagram  of  one's 
thoughts,  and  to  restrict  the  arrangement  is  to  hamper  the 
thoughts. 

When  plan-writing  becomes  unnecessary.  The  sheer  labor 
of  writing  out  plans  makes  it  impossible  to  do  this  for  every 
lesson.  To  require  it  is  to  sacrifice  teaching  energy  for  red 
tape.  However,  so  long  as  the  teacher  has  great  difficulty 
in  thinking  out  the  essentials  of  the  plan  with  sufficient 
definiteness  to  reduce  them  to  writing,  so  long  it  is  impor- 
tant that  just  this  be  done.  When  the  laborious  writing  of 
many  plans  has  established  a  Jiabit  of  tJiiiiking  a  lesson  i?i 
terms  of  definite  aims  and  speeifie  results,  when  one  comes 
to  make  daily  preparations  in  terms  of  edneative  processes 
7'ather  than  textbook  topics,  in  terms  oi  pnpil- activity  j-ather 
than  teacher-performance,  then  effective  planning  may  well 
be  done  without  much  writing.  Still,  even  the  most  experi- 
enced teacher  will  find  the  written  plan  a  useful  recourse 
when  a  new  field  is  attempted,  when  class  work  is  becoming 
lifeless  or  results  are  unsatisfactory.  When  a  supervisory 
officer  is  seeking  to  raise  standards  of  work  or  revise  modes 
of  procedure,  the  teacher's  written  plan  affords  a  needed 
common  ground  for  discussion,  and  itself  clarifies  and  in- 
vigorates the  teaching  policy.  The  writing  of  plans  should 
not  be  kept  up  to  the  point  of  becoming  perfunctory  routine, 
nor  should  it  ever  be  entirely  and  permanently  abandoned. 

Self-criticism.  lMnall\',  the  written  plan  will  serve  its  high- 
est function  after  the  lesson,  as  a  means  of  checking  up  aims 
over  against  achievements.  Self-criticism  is  more  valuable 
and,  with  a  good  teacher,  much  more  common  than  super- 
visory criticism.     Next,  in   avoidance  of  waste,   to  knowing 


220  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

what  one  ought  to  do  is  knowing  when  it  is  done.  "  The 
best  laid  plans  o'  mice  and  men  gang  aft  agley,"  and  a 
teacher  who  aims  high  seldom  attains  his  full  purpose  with 
all  the  members  of  his  class.  After  the  lesson  one  should 
think  how  far  his  aims  were  accomplished  for  the  whole 
class  and  how  far  for  exceptional  individuals,  which  motives 
worked  well  and  which  were  not  effecti\'e,  which  pupils  re- 
sponded to  the  chosen  incentix'es  and  wliich  did  not,  what 
part  of  the  task  undertaken  is  completed  and  what  remains 
yet  to  be  done.  To-morrow's  plan  must  be  based  on  to-day's 
attainments  rather  than  on  to-day's  jDJan.  It  is  this  definite- 
ness  of  aim,  planning  and  checking  of  achievements,  that 
insures  results  and  tJiorougJincss  in  the  work  of  a  teacher. 

Progress  notes.  However  well  the  skilled  mind  can  carry 
the  plan  of  a  lesson  without  written  aid,  records  of  the  pupils' 
progress  should  not  be  left  to  a  busy,  crowded  memor}\  The 
bookkeeping  that  schools  most  need  and  that  has  been  most 
neglected  is  a  daily  record  of  the  educative  achievements 
and  needs  of  individuals  and  of  the  class. 

"  Wm.  confuses  tJicrc  and  theirs  "  Mary  told  to  practice 
making  capital  G  and  T."  "  Chas.  mixed  on  7x8  and  zero 
combinations."  "  Jas.  to  look  up  relative  population  of  New 
Orleans  and  San  Francisco."  "  Study  Susie's  restlessness. 
Nervous  .?  "  "Is  Tom  deaf  or  dreamy  }  "  Such  would  be 
the  kind  of  frequently  appearing  notes  regarding  the  needs 
and  assignments  of  individuals.  But  there  would  also  be 
class  notations,  as  :  "  Drill  all  on  sepArate,  magnify,  equa- 
Tion."  "Question  arose  how  height  of  a  mountain  is  actually 
found.  Prepare  to  explain  and  illustrate."  "Drill  twice  each 
week  on  uses  of  infinitives,  until  class  is  perfect."  "Climate 
of  Brazil  discussed.  Develoj)  its  inlluence  on  commerce  in 
Wednesday's  lesson."  "  Put  liUis  with  plural  subject  on 
inexcusable  list  after  discussion  to-morrow."  "  Confusion 
in  division  with  o  in  quotient.     Review  and  drill," 


ELIMINATING  WASTE  IN  TEACHING  221 

Such  jottings  should  become  a  habit,  A  handy  "  prog- 
ress book  "  or  a  space  in  the  plan  book  at  the  end  of  each 
day's  plans  should  be  kept  for  this  purpose.  Useful  abbrevia- 
tions and  compact  clearness  of  arrangement  should  be  culti- 
vated. A  busy  superintendent  can  gather  more  information 
regarding  a  teacher's  thoroughness  and  value  by  a  glance  at 
such  notes  and  a  little  investigation  as  to  how  they  have  been 
followed  up  than  by  long  observation  of  actual  teaching  — 
though  this  last  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  These  "  progress 
notes,"  once  taken  down,  become  unfinisJied  biisincss  which 
has  the  precedence  in  planning  further  procedure.  Some 
of  them  will  determine  the  next  day's  plans,  some  demand 
attention  during  the  study  periods,  some  must  wait  for  occa- 
sional or  periodical  reviews,  some  will  be  taken  up  in 
teachers'  meetings,  or  in  conference  with  the  principal,  super- 
visor, or  medical  inspector.  But  once  made,  like  a  debit  on 
the  day  book,  it  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  until  checked  off 
as  accomplished  or  attended  to. 

Eliminating  superfluous  drill.  In  our  discussion  of  pro- 
motions we  called  attention  to  the  economy  and  motivation 
attained  by  the  simple  device  of  relieving  individual  pupils 
from  the  drill  classes  in  spelling,  penmanship,  or  the  mechan- 
ics of  any  other  subject  whenever  they  manifest  the  particular 
ability  sought  in  that  class  and  make  use  of  it  in  all  xvork 
outside  of  that  class.  The  economy  here  is  not  merely  that 
some  pupils  are  relieved  from  further  learning  what  they 
have  already  learned  and  from  being  bored  by  the  tedium 
of  continuing  to  do  what  is  already  done,  but  the  fact  that 
any  pupil  may  be  excused  from  any  drill  work  just  so  soon 
as  the  aim  of  the  drill  is  accomplished,  tremendouslv  vitalizes 
and  economizes  all  the  drill  work  of  the  class.  Ten  minutes' 
drill  is  a  vastly  different  thing  when  one  is  trj'ing  to  master 
some  specific  skill  adjustment  which  he  finds  is  necessary 
for  his  work  from  what  it  is  when  one  is  simply  enduring 


222  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

the  inevitable  writinp^  period  of  the  daily  schedule.  Applica- 
tion of  what  one  has  learned  —  which  is  after  all  the  only 
permanent  learning — is  a  very  different  matter  when  applica- 
tion is  the  only  means  of  avoiding  regular  drill  lessons. 
Nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  some  jxipils  need  more 
drill  on  any  particular  task  than  do  others.  To  keep  all 
pupils  on  the  same  task  the  same  length  of  time  must  neces- 
sarily be  wasteful.  Either  the  rapid  pupils  are  wastefully  re- 
tarded and  more  wastefully  bored  with  doing  useless  things 
or  else  the  slower  pupils  are  wastefully  hurried  and  more 
wastefully  discouraged.  Any  organization  which  does  not 
provide  for  pupils'  leaving  tasks  when  they  are  accomplished 
is  in  a  large  measure  inefficient. 

Waste  in  lack  of  thoroughness.  Pedagogical  wasteful- 
ness culminates  in  the  very  common  practice  of  filling  at 
the  spigot  of  laborious  drill  while  wasting  at  the  bung-hole  of 
careless  forgetfulness.  Discouraged  teachers  complain  that 
teaching  is  a  process  of  filling  a  sieve  with  water.  However 
faithfully  they  labor  to  get  the  knowledge  in  at  one  ear,  much 
of  it  immediately  goes  out  the  other.  Wherefore  they  dis- 
gustedly assert  that  there  is  nothing  between  the  two  to  stop 
it.  We  must  agree  that  there  is  little  hope  for  progress  when 
what  is  taught  won't  stay  taught.  Whatever  the  method, 
thoroughness  and   pcrmanencv  arc  essential  to  teaching. 

"What  is  "thoroughness"?  \h\t  herein  alone  lies  t//or- 
oiij^/iiirss  :  not  that  we  repeat  ck/  iiaitsram  in  the  teaching, 
but  that  having  taught  wc  sec  to  it  that  what  is  taught  is 
used  ;  that  when  a  mistake  is  corrected  t/iat  mistake  ceases 
to  occur ;  that  when  a  right  way  of  doing  a  thing  has  been 
learned,  only  that  way  is  used  thereafter,  whatever  the  cost 
of  effort  and  watchfulness,  until  habit  is  formed  and  takes 
up  the  burden.  Particularly  in  contending  against  home- 
formed  and  home-encouraged  habits  of  speech  is  eternal 
vigilance  the  price  of  thoroughness  and  economy.    Progress 


ELIMIXAI'INO   WASTE  IN  TEACHING  223 

notes  will  constitute  an  invaluable  aid  in  attaining  vigilant 
thoroughness.  A  list  of  "  inexcusables "  is  an  especially 
effective  device. 

What  errors  are  inexcusable?  When  a  definite  thing 
has  been  adequately  taught,  reviewed,  drilled  upon,  and 
practiced  until  there  is  no  doubt  that  every  pupil  can  use 
it  correctly  if  he  will,  until  only  carelessness  can  explain 
the  continued  misuse  of  it,  that  misuse  should  be  classed 
as  inexcusable.  Dullness,  ignorance,  failure  to  compre- 
hend, inability  to  do  the  thing  required  —  these  demand 
patience  and  further  careful  teaching ;  but  heedlessness, 
persistent  doing  wrong  what  one  can  do  right,  through  lack 
of  self-control  in  formation  of  the  new  habit  —  these  need 
vigorous,  relentless  treatment.  The  spelling  of  common 
words,  the  fundamental  number  combinations,  gross  collo- 
quialisms, inelegancies,  and  everyday  grammatical  blunders, 
—  these  are  the  sort  of  things  which  must  be  made  taboo. 
A  paper  containing  one  of  these  "  inexcusables  "  is  simply 
rejected  ?'//  toto  and  must  be  rewritten  or  at  least  purged 
of  the  offending  error  without  help  before  it  is  considered. 
A  recitation  in  which  one  occurs  is  deemed  a  failure.  The 
guilty  pupil  is  stopped  instantly  and  seated  ingloriously. 
Like  a  parliamentary  point  of  order,  the  correcting  of  an 
inexcusable  always  has  precedence  over  any  other  business. 
Punishments,  even  specified  punishments,'  may  be  inflicted, 
because  the  purpose  is  to  make  it  impossible  for  the  child 
to  forget  until  the  right  habit  is  formed. 

Making  the  list  of  "  inexcusables."  In  making  additions 
to  such  a  list  of  inexcusables,  only  one  thing  at  a  time  should 
be  permitted  and  that  onlv  after  review,  special  drill,  and 
full  warning  that  henceforth  this  particular  blunder  shall  be 
intolerable.  Never  should  the  list  be  used  as  a  cheap  incen- 
tive to  force  extra  exertion  in  the  studv  of  new  lessons.  It 
is  entirely  excusable  to  make  any  mistake  once.    Perfection 


224  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

in  any  ability  is  acquired  by  a  child  only  very  slowly  and 
gradually.  The  term  "  inexcusable  "  is  a  severe  one.  It  is 
better  not  to  use  it  than  to  abuse  it.  It  must  mean  two 
things,  —  that  the  mistake  ought  not  to  be  excused  and  that 
it  will  not  be  excused. 

Social  motivation.  Both  in  making  and  in  enforcing  this 
list  of  the  errors  which  will  not  be  tolerated  social  motiva- 
tion should  be  used  as  far  as  practicable.  It  is  best  that 
each  addition  to  the  list  should  be  made  by  formal  vote  of 
the  class,  and  they  should  be  warned  against  haste  rather 
than  led  on  too  rapidly.  They  should  feel  very  distinctly 
that  putting  any  tendency  of  theirs  on  this  list  is  a  ver)' 
positive  and  serious  "  swearing-off."  It  should  be  a  point 
of  honor  that  there  shall  be  no  infraction  permitted.  As  the 
purpose  is  to  make  every  child  sensitive  to  the  bad  usage, 
it  is  well  to  have  them  organize  themselves  into  teams,  or 
else  utilize  regular  groups,  rows,  or  other  divisions,  for  the 
special  purpose  of  watching,  correcting,  and  penalizing  each 
other  on  these  mistakes. 

Grammatical  weeks.  For  a  very  few  of  the  most  deep- 
rooted  tendencies,  such  as  "we  was,"  "ain't,"  Jiavc  with 
the  past  tense  instead  of  with  the  participle,  etc.,  there 
might  well  be  special  weeks  set  aside.  Parents  should  be 
informed  and  asked  to  cooperate.  This  may  be  done  through 
parents'  meetings  or  through  circular  letters  formulated, 
authorized,  and  signed  by  the  class.  Brief  drills  several 
times  a  day  should  be  introduced  in  school,  and  every  child 
should  be  a  detective  in  school,  at  home,  and  on  the  play- 
ground. Every  plan  should  be  adopted  which  will  keep  that 
correct  usage  vividly  in  the  foreground  of  consciousness  dur- 
ing the  entire  week,  and  drills  should  be  frequent  enough  to 
fix  the  habit  for  all  time. 

Waste  in  study.  The  art  of  study  like  the  art  of  teach- 
ing is  not  properly  within  the  scope  of  this  work.    I^ut  it  is 


ELIMINATING  WASTE  IN  TEACHING 


--5 


not  amiss  to  emphasize  the  recent  discussions  regarding 
the  necessity  of  teaching  and  trainmg  children  to  study. 
After  all,  the  child's  own  work  is  all  there  is  about  the 
school  that  is  actually  educative.  All  things  else,  including 
the  teacher  and  all  that  he  can  do,  are  merely  means  to 
secure  and  direct  that  child-activity.  Pupil-activity  is  pri- 
marily and  chiefly  study.  Efficient  study  is  one  of  the 
most  advanced  and  difficult  of  human  arts.  Few  teachers 
can  study  effectix^ely  and  economically.  How  very  few  can 
direct  others  wisely  in  the  complexities  of  the  process ! 
Yet  teachers  have  blandly  assumed  that  if  a  child  is  given 
an  assignment  in  a  book  he  should  by  nature  know  just 
how  to  master  it.  Some  even  avow  that  one  can  no  more 
be  taught  to  digest  his  lesson  than  he  can  be  taught  to 
digest  his  food  ;  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  give  him  the 
food  and  let  nature  do  the  rest ! 

The  art  of  study  must  be  taught,  also  the  art  of  teaching 
children  how  to  study.  Here  we  can  do  no  more  than  lay 
down  a  few  simple  princij^les  for  training  in  study. 

Study  is  selective  thinking.  All  effective  study  consists 
in  deliberate,  purposive,  sclccthc  tJimking.  It  consists  in 
selecting  the  problem  to  be  solved  and  then  the  data  which 
will  help  to  solve  it  and  the  method  of  solution  ;  in  seleetifig 
new  ideas  out  of  their  setting  of  familiar  ones,  in  selecting 
difficult  points  out  of  the  many  that  are  readily  grasped,  in 
selecting  the  viewpoint  or  aspect  which  contributes  to  one's 
present  purpose  and  passing  over  the  many  others  which 
are  not  at  the  time  pertinent,  in  selecting  one  difficultv  at 
a  time  for  adjustment  and  then  selecting  those  ideas  which 
can  contribute  to  that  adjustment. 

Dead-level  study  is  waste.  Careful  obserxation  will  soon 
demonstrate  that  children  often  work  as  hard  on  learning 
to  spell  words  that  they  already  know  and  could  hardly  mis- 
spell with  an  effort  as  they  do  on  those  that  are  strange 


226  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

and  difficult ;  they  study  the  sNlhiblcs  tliat  arc  unmistakable 
as  much  as  they  do  those  with  treacherous,  unusual  combi- 
nations. The  result  is  that  with  much  labor  just  those 
things  are  learned  which  were  known  before.  Worse  still, 
pupils  are  often  told  by  teachers  to  "study  each  word  ten 
times."  They  spend  as  much  time  on  the  "  tables  of  fives  " 
in  multiplication  which  they  never  miss,  or  the  sixes  which 
they  seldom  miss,  as  on  the  sevens  and  zero  combinations 
in  which  occur  about  nine  tenths  of  all  the  mistakes  that 
are  made.  And  further,  by  studying  them  as  "  tables  "  they 
spend  as  much  effort  on  six  times  one  as  they  do  on  six 
times  nine,  and  much  of  their  energy  is  expended  on  get- 
ting them  in  an  order  which  is  never  used  in  practice.  The 
more  one  drills  in  routine  fashion  over  materials  imperfectly 
known,  the  more  he  fixes  in  his  mind  the  things  already 
there  and  the  more  he  becomes  incapable  of  seeing  the 
things  not  already  understood.  And  this  is  what  most  chil- 
dren do  when  reviewing  or  relearning  a  poorly  prepared 
lesson.  It  is  a  safe  estimate  that  not  less  than  fifty  per  cent 
of  the  study  of  school  children  is  waste. 

Assignment.  The  child's  study  nia\-  I)e  controlled  by  the 
teacher  (i)  in  the  assignment,  (2)  by  direct  supervision, 
and  (3)  by  the  recitation. 

The  assignment  should  consist  in  (i)  making  the  prob- 
lem or  purpose  of  the  lesson  clear  and  dynamic  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils ;  (2)  arousing  a  genuine  interest  in 
the  thing  to  be  done,  making  the  problem  one  of  signifi- 
cance to  the  learner;  (3)  indicating  the  special  difficulties 
and  preparing  the   pupils  to  overcome   them    successfully  ; 

(4)  making  the  pupils  conscious  of  the  most  economical 
modes  of  learning  the  lesson,  alert  to  seek  for  these  modes 
and  keen  to  recognize  and  eliminate  wasteful  dawdling ;  and 

(5)  guiding  the  pupils  in  finding  the  essentials  to  be  learned 
and  the  kind  and  degree  of  learning  needed  for  each. 


ELIMINATING  WASTE  IN  TEACHING  227 

In  the  recitation  the  pupil  should  be  held  responsible 
ior  the  kind  of  learning  and  the  kind  of  results  which  are 
sought.  Detailed,  fragmentary  questions  will  secure  study 
and  thinking  only  of  the  detailed,  fragmentary  sort. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Observe  and  criticize  the  teaching  of  several  lessons  from 
the  standpoint  of  economy  due  to  definiteness  of  the  teacher's  aim. 

2.  In  any  lesson,  note  the  difference  in  attainment  among 
pupils  due  to  definiteness  of  aim  in  what  they  are  doing.  Specify 
the  instances  and  the  evidences. 

3.  Criticize  .several  textbooks  on  the  ground  of  the  clearness 
and  definiteness  with  which  they  bring  the  aim  of  each  lesson 
before  the  student. 

4.  Write  out  exactly  what  you  regard  as  the  aim,  in  terms  of 
pupil's  attainments,  of  several  selected  lessons  in  different  subjects. 

5.  Write  out  a  statement  of  the  pupil's  aim  for  the  same 
lessons. 

6.  Study  and  compare  carefully  the  methods  of  preparing 
plans  as  given  in  Strayer,  McMurr)',  Earhart,  and  others.  (See 
Readings.) 

7.  Study  and  compare  carefully  the  classification  of  lesson 
types  given  in  similar  works. 

8.  Plan  a  method  of  keeping  progress  notes  on  vour  own 
personal  studies. 

9.  Examine  any  accessible  progress  notes  kept  by  teachers 
and  make  out  a  series  of  them  based  on  actual  observation  or 
teaching  of  classes. 

10.  VV^-jte  out  recommendations  and  probable  effect,  in  the 
class  under  observation,  of  (</)  promoting  the  pupils  now  pro- 
ficient out  of  the  drill  classes  in  fundamentals ;  {/>)  making  the 
standard  of  work  out  of  the  drill  class  rather  than  in  it  the  basis 
of  promotion. 

11.  Make  a  practical  list  of  "  inexcusables "  for  the  class 
under  observation. 


228  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

READINGS 

Chan'CELLOR.    Class  Teaching  and  Management,  ehap.  v. 

Charters.    Methods  of  Teaching,  chap.  xxv. 

CoLOROVE.    The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chaps,  xviii,  xix. 

Dearhorx.    How  to  Learn  Easily,  chap.  i. 

Earhart.    Types  of  Teaching,  chaps,  viii,  xiv,  xv. 

Hall-Quest.    Supervised  Study. 

McMuRRY,  C.  A.    Method  of  the  Recitation,  chap.  xiv. 

McMuRRV,  F.  M.    How  to  Study,  and  Teaching  How  to  Study. 

O'Shea.    Everyday  Problems  in  Teaching,  chap.  vi. 

Parker.    Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  School,  chaps,  xvi,  xxi. 

Straver.    The  Teaching  Process,  chap.  vii. 

Strayer  and  Norswokthv.    How  to  Teach,  chap.  xiv. 

Swift.    Mind  in  the  Making,  chaps,  i,  ix,  x. 

Whipple.    How  to  Study  Effectively. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education 

Bulletin  AV.  j8,  191 3,  "  Economy  of  Time  in  Education." 


CHAPTER  XXI 

WORK  AND  DRUDGERY 

Play  and  work.  Play,  we  are  told,  is  activity  performed 
because  of  the  satisfaction  afforded  the  doer  in  the  process 
itself,  while  ivork  has  its  incentive  in  some  reward  beyond 
itself  which  the  worker  seeks.  The  distinction  seems  to  be 
largely  lost  when  play  becomes  professionalized  or  when 
one  comes  to  love  his  w'ork  for  its  own  sake  rather  than 
for  its  rewards,  for  then  one's  play  becomes  his  work  and 
his  work  becomes  play.  Often  what  is  work  for  one  is 
play  for  ^mother,  and  vice  versa.  We  have  all  heard  of  the 
man  who  cleared  his  garden  of  stones  by  drawing  a  face 
on  the  fence  and  inviting  several  boys  to  come  and  throw- 
stones  at  it.  He  turned  work  into  play.  It  is  the  activity 
itself  that  every  healthy  person  enjoys,  and  the  mere  fact 
of  its  being  useful  does  not  ordinarily  rob  it  of  its  attrac- 
tiveness. Also  it  is  the  activity  itself  that  is  educative.  But 
it  is  the  law  of  all  animal  nature  that  any  activity  which  is 
agreeable  tends  to  be  repeated,  while  that  which  is  disagree- 
able tends  by  the  very  fact  of  its  unpleasantness  to  be  in- 
hibited. That  which  is  done  pleasurably,  in  other  words, 
is  more  readily  and  more  permanently  learned  than  that 
which    is   done   witiiout   interest. 

Routine  and  drudgery.  Routine,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  is  the  sort  of  activity  which  bv  frequent  repetition 
becomes  easy  and  self-directive.  It  is  work,  in  that  it  is 
not  done  for  its  own  sake,  but  work  in  which  the  effort 
and  attention  rec|uired  to  perform  it  have  been  reduced  to  a 
mininumi.    When  wt)rk  becomes  so  hard  and  so  continuous 

229 


230  SCHOOL    KI'KIOIKNCV 

that  interest  in  the  end  is  lost  in  fatigue  or  in  disHke  of 
the  process  itself,  when  routine  duties  must  be  j^erformed 
to  the  point  where  the  purpose  is  lost  sight  of  and  the 
effort-reducing  influences  of  habit  formation  do  not  reduce 
the  necessary  strain  and  attention  so  that  the  work  may  go 
on  automatically  while  other  interests  occupy  the  mind,  then 
work  becomes  drndgciy.  Play  is  interesting  for  its  own  sake, 
work  for  the  sake  of  something  beyond  itself  ;  but  drudger\- 
is  without  interest.  Drudgery  is  disheartening,  depressing, 
and  grows  harder  instead  of  easier  with  rejsetition  —  except 
so  far  as  habit  may  ultimately  come  to  the  rescue. 

Aims,  —  fleeting  and  abiding.  Nature  has  provided  that 
the  lower  forms  of  life  and  man  in  his  simpler  processes 
shall  act  in  response  to  immediate  stimuli,  to  interests  that 
look  no  farther  than  the  moment  of  acting.  Such  are  play 
and  such  are  other  activities  which  satisfy  some  need  or 
desire  of  the  instant.  The  condition  of  civilization,  how- 
ever, is  that  man  shall  by  means  of  his  intellect  foresee 
needs  of  the  morrow,  of  the  winter,  of  old  age,  or  of  future 
generations  and  shall  feel  an  interest  in  these  sufficient  to 
outweigh  all  but  the  most  urgent  of  his  immediate  interests. 
These  higher  and  more  distant  purposes  become  tremen- 
dous forces  in  determining  the  conduct  of  civilized  adults 
and  to  a  much  less  degree  that  of  the  immature  —  children 
and  savages.  The  aim  of  education  is  to  substitute  these 
larger  purposes  of  civilized  humanity  for  the  push  and  pull  of 
momentary  impulses  as  the  determining  factors  in  human  con- 
duct. Not  to  eliminate  the  latter,  but  to  subject  them  to  the 
aims  and  judgment  of  the  intelligence.  To  state  it  another 
way,  the  aim  of  education  is  to  establish  the  power  and  hal)it 
of  working  persistently,  consecutively,  and  determinedly 
toward  ends  which  are  foreseen  ;  to  establish  the  capacity 
for  "  endurance  against  obstacles  and  through  hindrances." 
It  is  a  '"  demand  for  contitniity  in  the  face  of  difficulties." 


WORK  AM)   DRUDGERY  231 

Is  drudgery  blessed  ?  Now,  because  the  characteristic  of 
drudgery  is  that  it  affords  difficulties  and  necessitates  the 
suppression  of  immediate  desires,  it  has  become  traditional 
that  drudgery,  per  sc,  develops  character  ;  that  it  trains  one 
to  act  independently  of  his  inclinations,  to  respond  to  the 
call  of  duty  or  purpose  rather  than  of  pleasure.  If  this 
were  true,  drudgery  would  indeed  be  our  supreme  educative 
asset.  Ikit  is  it  true  t  ( )ur  purpose  is  not  to  incapacitate 
one  for  responding  to  momentary  interests  but  to  capacitate 
him  to  have  enduring  purposes,  which  will  outweigh  the 
others  when  they  conflict.  The  driving  force  in  drudgery 
is  not  a  dominating  purpose  ruling  from  within  but  a  grind- 
ing necessity  imposed  from  without.  Merely  doing  the 
thing  required  can  at  best  develop  a  perfunctory  habit.  The 
development  of  character  is  the  development  of  ruling  pur- 
poses. One  learns  to  act  independently  of  his  temporary 
impulses,  not  negatively  by  being  coerced  into  the  doing  of 
certain  tasks,  but  ix)sitivcl)'  by  acquiring  guiding  ideals. 
Servile  submission  to  external  necessity  develops  no  trait  of 
character  but  servility.  ]\nver  to  jespond  continuously  to 
a  sense  of  duty  can  come  only  through  finding  satisfaction 
in  acting  from  a  sense  of  duty.  The  love  of  doing  right 
for  right's  sake  is  fostered  only  by  finding  the  joy  in  doing 
right  for  right's  sake.  Tlic  fundamental  mistake  of  the 
advocates  of  the  "Blessed  be  drudgery"  theory  is  the 
assumption  that  the  child's  character  is  developed  by 
the  teacher's  purposes. 

Dewey  on  work  and  drudgery.  The  distinction  is  stated 
by  Professor  John  Dewey  in  his  forceful  monograph,  "  In- 
terest and  Effort."     He  savs  : 

There  seems  to  l)c  no  bettor  name  for  tlic  acts  of  using  inter- 
mediate means,  or  appliances,  to  reach  ends  than  7i>ork.  When 
employed  in  this  waw  however,  work  must  be  distinguished  from 
labor  and  Irom  toil  and  drudgery.    Labor  means  a  form  of  work 


232  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

in  which  the  direct  result  accomplished  is  of  value  only  as  a  means 
of  exchange  for  something  else.  It  is  an  economic  term,  being 
applied  to  that  form  of  work  where  the  product  is  paid  for,  and 
the  money  paid  is  used  for  objects  of  more  direct  value.  Toil 
implies  unusual  arduousness  in  the  task,  invoking  fatigue.  Drudg- 
txy  is  an  activity  which  in  itself  is  quite  disagreeable,  performed 
under  the  constraint  of  some  quite  extraneous  need  (p.  78). 

If  one  means  by  a  task  simply  an  undertaking  involving  diffi- 
culties that  have  to  be  overcome,  then  children,  youth,  and  adults 
alike  require  tasks  in  order  that  there  may  be  continued  develop- 
ment. But  if  one  means  by  a  task  something  that  has  no  interest, 
makes  no  appeal,  that  is  wholly  alien  and  hence  uncongenial,  the 
matter  is  quite  different.  Tasks  in  the  former  sense  are  educative 
because  they  supply  an  indispensable  stimulus  to  thinking,  to  re- 
flective inquiry.  Tasks  in  the  latter  sense  signify  nothing  but  sheer 
strain,  constraint,  and  the  need  of  some  external  motivation  for 
keeping  at  them.  The)-  are  ////educative  because  they  fail  to  intro- 
duce a  clearer  consciousness  of  ends  and  a  search  for  proper  means 
of  realization.  I'hey  are  ////^educative  because  they  deaden  and 
stupefy ;  they  lead  to  that  confused  and  dulled  state  of  mind  that 
always  attends  an  action  carried  on  without  a  realizing  sense  of 
what  it  is  all  about.  They  are  also  w/Veducative  because  they  lead 
to  dependence  upon  external  ends  ;  the  child  works  simply  because 
of  the  pressure  of  the  task  master  and  diverts  his  energies  just  in 
the  degree  in  which  this  pressure  is  relaxed ;  or  he  works  because 
of  some  alien  inducement  —  to  get  some  reward  that  has  no 
intrinsic  connection  with  what  he  is  doing  (p.   54). 

The  meaning  of  drudgery.  A  school  task,  then,  contrib- 
utes to  the  making  of  character  in  just  about  the  degree 
that  it  is  self-directed  ;  impelled  by  enduring  purposes  from 
within  rather  than  by  compulsion  from  without.  The  work 
that  a  child  does  through  a  sense  of  duty  or  a  sense  of  obliga- 
tion, through  a  pride  of  self-control  or  a  desire  to  give 
pleasure  to  others,  —  such  acts  are  work  motivated  in  the 
highest  degree.  They  are  as  far  from  drudgery  as  possible. 
Tasks  that  are  done  through  a  fear  of  punishment,  through 


WORK  AND   DRUDGERY  233 

the  domineering  presence  of  the  master,  through  any  coer- 
cion that  the  toiler  would  avoid  if  he  could,  —  these  are  the 
tasks  that  make  for  servility,  for  weakness  of  character,  for 
obedience  to  the  impulse  of  the  moment.  It  is  just  as  truly 
a  yielding  to  momentary  interest  to  struggle  on  through  labor 
under  the  prodding  of  fear  or  of  necessity  as  to  yield  to  the 
siren  call  of  sensuous  pleasure.  Drudgery  is  like  work  in 
the  lack  of  an  intrinsic  attractiveness  in  the  doing,  but  it  is 
like  play  in  the  lack  of  an  abiding  purpose  ;  it  affords  the 
toil  but  lacks  either  the  primitive  or  the  civilized  reason  for 
toiling.  It  tends  neither  to  establish  a  process  through  its 
agreeableness  nor  to  justify  it  through  its  reasonableness. 
l/ttst  one  tiling  is  ivorsc  for  character  biiilding  than  doing 
one's  duty  thro2igh  compulsion  from  without  —  and  that  is 
not  doing  it,  zvhatever  the  reason. 

What  makes  for  character  ?  Without  the  requisite  pupil- 
activity  there  is  no  possibility  of  education.  The  thing  that 
ought  to  be  done  must  be  done  whether  one  wants  to  do  it 
/or  not,  but  the  character  development  consists  not  in  being 
[made  to  do  what  one  does  not  want  to  do  but  in  wanting 
to  do  what  one  ought  to  do.  Character  lies  not  in  some 
overt  thing  having  been  done  but  in  something  having  been 
done  for  the  sake  of  a  high  ideal.  The  gratuitous  exercise 
of  will  power,  the  gritty  determination  to  overcome  difficul- 
ties for  the  sake  of  overcoming,  to  do  the  hard  thing  because 
it  is  hard  —  these  are  the  very  foundation  stones  of  strong 
character.  The  teacher  who  leads  a  child  to  such  splendid 
achievement  has  done  a  noble  thing.  But  he  has  done  some- 
thing as  different  as  possible  from  exercising  his  own  will 
power  upon  the  child,  from  determining  for  the  child  that 
he  must  overcome  the  difficulties. 

Life  has  no  need  for  drudges.  Life  is  full  of  duties  that 
can  be  made  easy  through  intelligent  reduction  to  routine. 
Life  is  full  of  work  —  hard  work  —  limitless  things  to  be 


234  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

done  that  arc  worth  while  doing  and  doing  well.  And  there 
is  reward,  near  or  far,  for  doing  things  well  and  for  work- 
ing hard  and  faithfully.  The  world  needs  workers,  doers  of 
intelligent,  purposeful,  hard,  wholesome  work,  and  the  world 
pays  them  and  respects  them.  But  the  meanest  walks  of 
life  are  already  cluttered  with  drudges,  those  who  toil  aim- 
lessly, hopelessly,  painfully,  and  must  be  driven  to  every  step 
of  their  tasks.  They  get  little  for  their  service  and  are  usu- 
ally not  worth  that  little.  If  power  must  be  perpetually 
directed  from  without,  mule  power  or  steam  power  is  in- 
comparably cheaper  and  better  than  human  muscle  power. 
Self-directing  intelligence  is  the  commodity  that  makes  any 
person  valuable  to  himself  and  others.  This  is  developed 
by  work  —  not  by  drudgery.  If  one  must  be  a  driven 
drudge  in  life,  surely  he  needs  no  training  for  it  in  school, 
Merc  drudgery  cannot  educate. 

Summary  principles.  We  may  sum  up  the  foregoing  dis- 
cussion in  a  few  principles,  with  their  application  to  practical 
problems  : 

1.  Education  is  possible  only  through  the  pitpiV s  activity. 
Whatever  is  done  leaves  some  educative  result. 

2.  The  same  pupil-activity  viay  be  made  play  oj' work  or 
drudgery  according  to  the  manner  of  its  motivation.  It  has 
already  been  shown  that  much  of  it  may  profitably  be  re- 
duced to  routine.  Such  common  devices  of  the  primary 
teacher  as  number  games  and  story  dramatizations  give  a 
play  quality  to  lessons  which  must  otherwise  be  work  or 
drudgery.  So  does  the  spelling  match  or  other  forms  of 
competitive  recitation.  The  very  attitude  or  tone  of  the 
teacher  may  make  the  difference  between  spiritless  toil  and 
spirited  play;  for  example,  contrast  the  pupils'  response  to 
an  imperious  "  Now,  every  one  of  you  get  that  lesson  and 
be  quick  about  it,"  with  the  effect  of  a  smiling  '"  Let  us  see 
which  one  of  the  class  can  finish  this  le.sson  first." 


WORK  AND  DRUDGERY  235 

2).  School  zvork  naturally  gravitates  toward  drudgery  iin- 
less  good  teaching  counteracts  the  tendency.  The  unbroken 
regularity  of  daily  lesson  assignments  inevitably  tends  to 
sameness,  to  monotony,  and  often  to  the  strain  of  unduly 
heavy  requirements  if  special  care  is  not  taken  to  avoid  these 
very  tendencies.  Any  school  work,  because  of  its  abstract- 
ness  and  lack  of  immediate  usefulness,  will  inevitably  fall 
into  the  form  of  drudgery  by  the  mere  fact  of  failure  to  con- 
nect it  with  ever-renewed  and  quickening  interests.  At  best, 
teaching  machinery  will  progressively  consume  more  and 
more  of  the  available  energy  in  friction  and  lost  motion  un- 
less constantly  lubricated  with  intelligent  adaptation.  It  will 
run  constantly  harder  and  heavier  if  the  contact  of  the  parts 
with  each  other  and  with  the  driving  force  is  not  faithfully 
adjusted  wherever  they  arc  found  to  bind  or  drag. 

4.  Efficiency  in  learning  is  attained,  according  to  natural 
lazvs,  li'hen  the  learning  act  is  either  play  or  work  or  is  re- 
duced to  routifie,  but  dmdgery'is  neither  natuj-al  nor  efficient 
as  a  learning  process.  Wholly  in  infancy,  almost  wholly  in 
the  kindergarten  and  in  a  decreasing  degree  throughout  the 
primary  grades,  the  learning  activities  readily  take  the  form 
of  pleasurable  plaw  This  \ery  pleasurableness  is  nature's 
means  of  making  the  doing  of  new  things  easy  for  the  young 
and  strengthening  tiie  tendency  to  retain  permanently  what 
is  learned.  As  the  responsibilities  of  mature  life  approach, 
there  develops  the  capacity  for  continued  self-direction  in 
response  to  permanent  policies  and  distant  aims  which  would 
have  no  force  in  early  childhood.  One  is  driven  through 
the  whole  year's  work  for  the  sake  of  the  annual  promo- 
tion, or  drives  himself  through  high  school  and  college 
for  the  sake  of  success  in  a  chosen  occupation  ;  or  one  toils 
through  long,  hard  tasks  in  order  to  excel  his  fellows;  or  he 
grapples  with  a  problem  that  he  may  be  victorious  over  its 
difficulties.    Continued  striving  to  attain  a  purpose  —  this  is 


236  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

the  characteristic  of  work.  Hut  tasks  that  are  accompHshed 
only  through  the  continued  pushini^,  nagging,  prodding  of 
some  external  force  or  will  power  is  work  done  at  the  very 
lowest  standard  of  efficiency.  The  resultant  learning  is,  of 
necessity,  very  imperfectly  accomplished,  and  the  waste  of 
energy  is  enormous.  The  very  disagrecableness  through 
psychological  necessity  increases  the  difficulty  and  reduces 
the  permanency  of  the  connections  made.  Economy  hi 
learning,  then,  consists  in  keeping  all  school  tasks  in  the 
plane  of  play  or  of  u>ork,  —  wholly  play  in  cai'ly  childhood 
and  progressively  making  the  transition  to  work  as  one 
groivs  tozvard  niatnrity,  —  ///  irdNci?ig  suitable  activities 
to  routine  habits  but  allowing  no  learning  to  fall  to  the 
wastefnl  level  of  drndgeiy. 

5.  The  development  of  cha7-aete7%  increasing  capacity  for 
persistent  cojiscctitive  achievement  ^vithont  extemial  com- 
pulsion, is  attained  only  by  forming  the  habit  of  acting 
from  inner  ideals  and  purposes.  This  is  possible  neither 
through  play  nor  drudgery  but  only  through  being  accustomed 
to  consistent,  well-motivated  work. 

6.  Disappointment  in  attaining  an  end  for  which  one  has 
zvorked  faithfully  begets  discouragement  and  loss  of  confi- 
dence in  ideals  and  pmposes.  Aims  too  remote  may  stimu- 
late for  a  time  and  then  gradually  lose  their  effectiveness. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  in  teaching  to  set  up  definite  and 
attainable  ends,  especially  the  sort  that  every  child  may  suc- 
ceed in  reaching.  Prizes  have  the  objection  that  but  very 
few  can  possibly  secure  them.  Even  if  they  should  stimu- 
late all  the  class  a  first  time,  the  great  majority  would  soon 
become  immune  to  any  stimulating  effect.  Promotions  at  long 
intervals  tend  to  be  effective  for  only  a  short  while  before 
the  time  they  are  determined.  Perhaps  the  most  reliable 
and  generallv  effective  purpose  for  daily  use  is  the  love  of 
mastering  difficulties,  of   solving  the   problem  immediately 


WORK  AND  DRUDGERY  237 

in  hand,  or  of  overcoming  an  obstacle.  To  keep  this  sort 
of  purpose  vital,  tasks  assigned  must  be  carefully  adjusted 
to  the  pupil's  capacities  —  hard  enough  to  challenge  strenu- 
ous effort  but  not  too  hard  to  make  ultimate  success  reason- 
ably sure.  Practically,  this  means  that  assignments  must  be 
in  terms  of  definite  achievements,  either  objective  or  sub- 
jective, which  the  pupil  fully  appreciates  and  knows  when 
he  has  reached. 

Drudgery  in  teaching.  It  is  hardly  less  important  for 
tcachi)ig  efficiency  than  for  learning  efficiency  that  necessary 
tasks  should  be  so  adjusted  as  never  to  fall  into  the  waste- 
fulness of  drudgery.  The  drive  of  a  daily  schedule,  (if  rules 
and  regulations,  the  custom  of  taking  up  written  work  and 
returning  it  at  a  given  time  with  certain  sorts  of  correc- 
tions, and  the  like,  ser\^e  as  an  external  impelling  force  quite 
unlike  an  inner  purpose  or  aim.  Such  tasks  by  their  mo- 
noton}',  by  their  heavy  laboriousness,  by  the  lack  of  any 
feeling  of  definite  achievement,  lose  the  pleasing  character 
of  play  or  the  worth-while  character  of  work.  Because  they 
demand  constant  attention  and  cannot  be  done  automaticallv 
with  success,  however  often  repeated,  they  cannot  be  made 
easy  or  economical  by  reducing  them  to  routine.  When  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  daily  work  of  a  teacher  takes  on 
this  dreary  character,  teaching  becomes  dreadful  in  its  op- 
pressive monotony,  hopeless  in  its  aimlessness,  and  almost 
profitless  in  its  uninspiring  deadness.  In  the  next  chapter 
we  shall  attempt  to  show  how  one  typical  sort  of  teaching 
drudgery  may  be  lifted  to  the  plane  of  economical  and  inter- 
esting work.  It  is  our  firm  belief  that  whenever  any  task 
of  teacher  or  of  pupil  cannot  be  elevated  from  the  plane  of 
drudgery  there  is  something  radically  wrong  with  the  assign- 
ment of  the  task.  Work  must  be  done  or  there  is  no  teach- 
ing or  learning,  but  the  particular  task  or  the  particular  form 
or  quantity  of  it  or  the  manner  of  assignment  which  converts 


238  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

it  into  drudger}'  is  wrong.  It  is  precisely  this  motivating 
of  tasks,  of  fitting  them  to  worthy  jnirposes  and  vital  inter- 
ests that  constitutes  good  teaching  and  good  management. 
Neither  study  nor  teaching  is  good  if  it  is  drudgery. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Observe  carefully  the  day's  work  of  a  child  in  school  and  list 
as  many  as  practicable  of  his  activities  which  are  distinctly  pleas- 
urable and  those  which  are  unpleasant.  In  which  of  these  groups 
does  he  appear  to  make  the  more  rapid  progress  in  learning  the 
processes  involved  ? 

2.  Select  typical  activities  which  have  the  character  of  daidgery 
and  make  suggestions  for  changing  them,  without  sacrificing  their 
educative  value,  (d)  to  well-motivated  work  ;  (/')  to  play. 

3.  Select  forms  of  work  and  indicate  means  of  converting  them 
into  play  without  destroying  their  teaching  value;  also  of  converting 
plav  into  work. 

4.  ('live  instances  where  work  has  dropped  to  the  level  of 
drudgery:  (<?)  through  having  the  purposes  of  the  pupil  too 
remote ;  (/^)  through  too  great  monotony ;  (r)  through  too  heavy 
tasks ;  (^)  through  repeated  lack  of  success  in  attaining  the  aim. 
In  each  instance  give  your  plan  fc^r  remedying  the  fault. 

READINGS 

Darroch.    Psychology  in  the  Training  of  the  Teacher,  chap.  v. 

De  Garmo.    Interest  and  Kducation,  chap.  viii. 

Dewey.    Democracy  and  Education,  chap.  xv. 

Dewey.    Interest  and  Effort  in  Education. 

Klapper.    Principles  of  Educational  Practice,  chaps,  xiii.  xiv. 

Moore.    What  is  Education  ?  chap.  viii. 

Payot.    The  Education  of  the  Will,  chap.  iv.  p.  iv. 

Rl'EniGKK.    The  Principles  of  Education,  p.  267. 

TllORXDlKi:.    Educational  Psychology  (Priefcr  Course),  chaps,  v,  vi. 

Thorndikk.    Principles  of  Teaching,  chap.  v. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

MARKING  EXERCISES 

The  drudgery  of  marking  papers.  In  the  gospel  of  good 
teaching,  as  we  have  seen,  there  can  be  no  such  beatitude 
as  "  Blessed  be  drudgery."  Blessed  be  work,  hard  work, 
persistent,  relentless,  purposeful  work,  but  not  drudgery. 
It  becomes  then  a  most  practical  problem  of  school  man- 
agement to  eliminate  the  drudger)'  —  not  by  the  neglect  or 
abandoning  of  a  single  task  that  is  useful  or  profitable,  but 
by  changing  it  somehow  to  interesting,  wholesome,  intelli- 
gent work.  There  is  practically  universal  agreement  that  of 
all  the  tasks  of  the  teacher,  correcting  pupils'  exercises  is 
the  nearest  approximation  to  hopeless  drudgery. 

Prevents  good  teaching.  The  conscientious  teacher  ordi- 
narily spends  countless  dreary  hours,  after  school  and  late 
at  night,  when  mind  and  bod)'  are  wearied,  painfully  mark- 
ing the  same  ever-recurring  mistakes  by  some  more  or  less 
elaborate  system  of  symbols  and  affixing  to  pupils'  efforts 
valuations  which  can  be  justified  by  no  logical  or  psycho- 
logical reasoning.  l^Vom  papyrus  in  the  British  Museum  we 
learn  that  the  schoolmasters  of  Egypt  did  the  same  thing  in 
much  the  same  way  before  the  time  of  Abraham.  It  is  the 
assumption  that  this  marking  somehow  increases  the  pupils' 
abilities  and  directs  the  teaching  process.  But  the  work  of 
a  tired  mind  is  necessarily  perfunctory.  When  one  is  wear\' 
and  correcting  papers  has  become  a  bore,  genuine  judgments 
as  to  the  needs  aiid  progress  of  the  writers  is  impossible, 
and  the  marking  degenerates  into  the  mere  indicating  of 
the  more  glaring  and  obvious  errors  —  the  "  inexcusables." 

239 


240  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Rarely  indeed  does  such  marking  suggest  improvements  in 
one's  mode  of  instructing  or  leave  one  in  a  sufficiently  vigo- 
rous or  interested  mental  condition  to  plan  them.  In  order 
to  require  enough  written  work  to  afford  adequate  training 
for  a  class  of  thirty  or  forty,  the  teacher  attempts  to  do 
more  of  this  sort  of  correcting  than  it  is  humanly  possible 
to  do  and  keep  himself  fit  even  to  do  the  correcting  with 
discretion,  to  say  nothing  of  an  intelligent  study  of  the 
work  graded  or  attention  to  the  many  other  out-of-school 
duties  of  a  teacher.  The  grinding  drudgery  of  marking 
papers  often  precludes  the  physical  recreation,  the  social 
relaxation,  and  tlie  professional  and  general  reading  neces- 
sarv  to  growing  efficiency. 

Marking  papers  fails  of  its  purpose.  Only  a  powerful 
sense  of  duty  could  drive  a  teacher  to  this  slavish  work  of 
endlessly  marking  papers,  (^ne  must  feel  that  it  contributes 
tremendously  to  the  pupils'  good,  l^ut  what,  in  fact,  is  the 
benefit  that  the  pupil  derives  from  it .''  Not  uncommonly 
when  the  paper  is  returned  to  him  he  merely  glances  at  the 
grade  "given"  him  and  drops  the  paper  in  the  waste  basket 
or  stuffs  it  in  liis  desk  —  to  await  the  cleaning  day.  If  he 
is  required  to  correct  the  errors  marked,  he  probably  does 
so  in  a  mechanical  fashion,  only  to  repeat  the  same  blunders 
in  his  next  exercise.  Even  these  are  not  corrected  unless 
the  overburdened  teacher  still  further  loads  himself  with 
the  yet  worse  drudgery  of  re-reading  the  paj^ers.  Of  all  the 
dead-level  work  of  the  school,  perhaps  that  which  leaves 
the  least  permanent  impression  on  the  mind  of  a  pupil  is 
the  correction  of  his  written  work  as  ordinarily  done  by 
his  teacher. 

Eliminating  needless  mistakes.  The  first  step  in  elimi- 
nating this  drudgery  is  to  stop  the  endless  repetition  of 
the  same  mistakes.  ICrrors  in  spelling  common  words,  in 
the  fundamental   arithmetic  combinations,   in   capitalization, 


MARKING   EXERCISES  241 

ordinary  punctuation,  indentation  of  paragraphs,  and  the 
formation  of  letters,  —  any  definite  things  that  have  been 
full}-  taught  and  are  got  wrong  only  through  sheer  careless- 
ness, —  such  errors  should  not  be  tolerated.  To  correct 
them  over  and  over  is  to  encourage  a  child  in  confusing 
and  unlearning  what  he  has  painfully  learned,  in  slipping 
back  where  he  has  laboriously  climbed  up,  in  doing  wrong 
what  he  can  do  right.  It  were  better  that  he  should  not 
be  permitted  to  write  thafi  that  he  should  repeatedly  write 
the  same  mistakes  for  the  teacher  to  correct.  The  pupil 
must  feel  a  responsibility  for  the  knowledge  which  he  has. 
He  has  no  right  to  expect  further  instruction  so  long  as  he 
fails  to  make  use  of  present  attainments.  Absolute  refusal 
by  the  teacher  to  consider  any  paper  marred  by  these  inex- 
cusable mistakes  will  soon  develop  in  the  pupil  a  habit  of 
criticizing  his  own  work  before  handing  it  in,  of  making 
sure  that  he  is  right  as  he  goes  along.  No  new  lesson  can 
be  so  important  as  the  using  of  the  old. 

Application  of  the  taboo.  The  list  of  "  inexcusables " 
described  in  another  chapter  has  been  found  a  most  effec- 
tive means  to  this  end.  When  pupils  fully  realize  that 
carelessness,  instead  of  relieving  them  from  a  moment's 
effort  and  care,  enormously  increases  their  immediate  labor, 
unnecessary  mistakes  will  largely  disappear.  With  the 
elimination  of  carelessness  will  come  the  elimination  of 
mere  drudgery  in  correcting.  Then  the  attention  of  teacher 
and  pupils  may  be  centered  upon  the  new  problem  of  the 
lesson,  on  which  the  paper  is  intended  to  afford  exercise. 

Values  of  grading  by  pupils.  It  is  this  new  problem 
upon  which  the  whole  class  needs  all  the  training  practi- 
cable and  upcMi  which  the  mind  should  be  focused  in  both 
wriliug  and  judging  the  paprr.  JMir  the  teacher  to  do  the 
marking  is  to  de]5rive  the  i)upils  of  the  most  eftective  {orn\ 
of  trainiui".    That  inestimable  socializing  value  which  comes 


242  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

from  each  pupil's  measuring  himself  critically  against  his 
fellows,  testing  himself  by  the  standard  of  his  peers,  see- 
ing himself  in  the  light  of  their  attainments  —  this  is  at  its 
best  when  one  is  critically  examining  the  papers  prepared 
by  his  classmates.  An  attitude  of  critical,  independent  judg- 
ment and  a  full-rounded,  many-sided  view  of  a  problem  is 
attained  in  no  way  better  than  in  judging  numerous  success- 
ful and  unsuccessful  efforts  at  its  solution.  Why  deprive 
the  pupils  of  these  su])reme  editcative  opportunities  .'' 

Values  of  grading  to  the  graders.  Are  there  rapid  ]:)upils 
in  need  of  "busy  work"  to  occupy  spare  moments.''  What 
better  employment  than  judging  the  papers  of  the  class  ? 
Are  there  slow  pupils  whose  mastery  of  the  problem  is 
still  imperfect  ?  What  better  drill  is  possible  than  the 
grading  of  the  same  problem  in  a  dozen  to  forty  papers } 
What  finer  motivation  for  getting  that  question  clear  in 
mind  and  knowing  that  it  is  clear }  Are  there  careless 
ones  .''  How  better  motivate  thoroughness  than  by  having 
them  mark  the  papers  of  the  others,  knowing  that  each 
mark  will   be  jealously  scrutinized  by  the  author.? 

Values  of  grading  to  the  writers.  It  is  in  this  fact,  that 
grading  by  one's  peers  is  challenged,  that  its  greatest  value 
lies.  The  teacher's  marks  are  accepted  as  a  matter  of  course, 
and  the  incident  is  regarded  as  closed  as  soon  as  one  finds 
"'  how  much  he  gave  me  on  it."  Nothing  more  effectually 
stops  the  thinking  process  than  tlie  teacher's  authoritative 
approval  or  disapproval  of  an  answer  in  oral  or  written 
recitation.  Nothing  more  effectively  sustains  and  j)rojects 
the  mental  activity  than  criticism  by  a  member  of  the  class. 
Fortunate,  indeed,  that  mistakes  may  occur  in  the  ]:)upils' 
grading. 

An  illustration.  An  instructive  incident  came  to  the 
writer's  attention  in  a  school  where  this  plan  of  grading 
by    pupils  was    in    use.     V.   was  a  recognized   leader   in   a 


MARKING  EXERCISES  243 

seventh-grade  arithmetic  class.  He  was  rather  more  brilHant 
than  painstaking.  On  this  occasion  the  papers  of  the  whole 
class  had  been  given  him  to  grade.  By  merest  chance  he 
had  misread  one  of  the  problems  and  graded  every  paper 
incorrect  which  did  not  contain  the  same  mistake  that  he 
had  made.  The  papers  were  returned  to  the  class  without 
comment  by  the  teacher.  As  always,  every  mark  was 
eagerly  scrutinized  by  the  author  of  each  paper.  Immedi- 
ately a  storm  of  indignation  arose.  Under  the  restrictions 
of  parliamentary  procedure  the  aggrieved  ones  were  given 
an  opportunity  to  sfcite  their  case,  and  \\  and  those  who 
agreed  with  him,  to  answ-er.  Then  each  side  was  required 
to  prove  its  position  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  class.  The 
next  few  minutes  developed  some  of  the  clearest  arith- 
metical analyses  and  keenest  debating  ever  attained  in  the 
school.  The  principles  of  that  problem  were  learned, 
never  to  be  forgotten,  and  \'.  had  a  remarkably  effective 
lesson  of  the  kind  he  most  needed.  The  teacher  merely 
presided,  keeping  everyone  courteous  and  good-natured. 

Some  misconceptions.  The  pupil-grading  plan  was  once 
recommended  to  a  meeting  of  teachers,  and  later  one  of 
them  reported  that  he  had  tried  and  abandoned  it  "because 
the  parents  complained  that  it  was  making  the  smart  pupils 
snobbish  !  "  I  Ic  had  missed  the  whole  point.  A  constant 
change  of  those  who  do  tlie  grading  is  essential,  and  there 
is  less  occasion  for  calling  on  the  best  pupils  for  this  work 
than  for  calling  on  the  slow-er  ones.  Another  teacher  found 
that  certain  chums  and  cliques  were  grading  each  other  too 
high  !  He,  too,  caught  only  half  the  idea.  Getting  marks 
for  record  is  but  an  incidental  aim  in  grading.  Interest  in 
improving  abilities  should  destroy  all  motive  for  deception, 
while  the  constant  oversight  of  the  teacher  and  the  constant 
changing  of  the  graders  should  make  partial itv  impossible. 
Ordinarily  the   pupil   doing    the   grading   places    his    name 


244  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

on  the  paper,  and  failure  to  mark  a  mistake  is  not  only 
more  serious  than  making  the  mistake  in  the  first  plaee 
but  subjects  the  careless  or  unfair  marker  to  the  constant 
special  watchfulness  of  the  teacher.  In  the  writer's  own 
experience  in  re\-ising  grades  made  by  students  he  has  had 
occasion  to  raise  the  marks  quite  as  often  as  to  lower  them. 
Variations.  Many  variations  of  the  grading  plan  may 
be  devised  : 

1.  One  pupil  may  grade  all  the  papers  for  the  class, 
taking  one  or  more  evenings  or  study  hours  for  the  pur- 
pose. This  would  ordinarily  be  a  pupil  who  has  more 
spare  time  at  his  disposal  than  others  or  else  one  having 
special  need  of  practice  on  the  particular  problem  of  the 
paper. 

2.  The  lot  may  be  given  to  a  group  to  work  on  collec- 
tively with  full  opportunity  for  conference  and  discussion. 
These  may  be  temporary  groups  for  the  purpose,  or  one 
permanent  class  group  may  grade  the  papers  of  another 
group.  An  advanced  group  may  well  review  by  means  of 
grading  of  papers  for  a  lower  group.  Rival  groups  may 
exchange  papers,  or  rooms  or  schools  may  exchange. 

3.  The  papers  may  be  distributed  among  several  pupils, 
no  one  having  enough  to  interfere  with  his  regular  tasks. 

4.  A  most  expeditious  method  is  to  have  the  papers 
passed,  one,  two,  or  three  steps  to  the  right ;  to  the  left ; 
backward  or  forward  ;  or  exchanged  by  rows  in  all  possible 
permutations.  Under  the  precision  of  well-ordered  routine 
the  passing  and  return  of  papers  takes  but  an  instant.  By 
constantly  varying  the  order  of  exchange  there  is  always  a 
new  interest  and  a  new  social  value  in  getting  a  paper  to 
judge.  The  essentials  of  the  lesson  are  then  reviewed 
under  the  lead  of  the  teacher  or,  better,  of  one  pupil  or 
several  of  them  in  turn,  and  each  paper  is  marked.  At 
a    signal,    papers    are    returned    with    routine    promptness. 


MARKING  EXERCISES  245 

Each  pupil  then  reviews  his  own  paper  and  indicates  his  ac- 
ceptance or  definite  exceptions.  They  arc  then  passed  up  in 
order  to  the  teacher.  Each  pupil  has  been  over  the  points 
of  the  exercise  three  times  ;  once  in  preparing  it,  once  in 
judging  another  paper,  and  finally  in  reviewing  his  own  —  at 
least  so  far  as  his  mistakes  made  it  desirable  that  he  should. 

Makes  for  economy  and  definiteness.  A  moment's 
thought  will  demonstrate  that  reviews,  drills,  and  textbook 
recitations  can  be  far  more  rapidly  and  thoroughly  con- 
ducted in  this  manner  than  by  any  form  of  oral  recitation, 
provided  the  point  to  each  question  is  very  definite  and 
clear.  Questions  must  be  asked  so  that  only  one  answer 
can  be  correct  and  the  essential  part  of  that  answer  can  be  so 
precisely  stated  that  every  pupil  can  know  positively  whether 
an  answer  is  correct  or  incorrect.  Not  that  the  answer 
must  be  in  certain  words,  but  that  the  exact  thought  must 
be  clearly  expressed. 

The  reflex  effect  upon  the  teacher  of  thus  making  his 
instruction  definite  and  of  having  definite  evidence  of 
results  is  obvious.  The  papers  also  afford  a  most  con- 
venient means  of  checking  the  progress  of  a  grade  and  of 
comparing  grade  with  grade.  These  values  should  make 
this  plan  of  pupil  grading  popular  with  supervising  officials. 

Exact  grades  required.  The  grades  given  by  pupils  should 
be  indicated  precisely  on  each  question  or  point  separately, 
to  insure  care  and  to  facilitate  ready  review  by  the  author 
and  by  the  teacher.  Symbols  may  be  used  likewise  to  indi- 
cate errors  in  spelling,  grammar,  punctuation,  and  the  like. 
The  grader  should  be  held  rigidly  accountable  for  the 
thoroughness  and  accuracy  of  his  grading.  The  author 
should  have  the  inalienable  right  of  appeal  on  anv  correc- 
tion or  valuation  of  his  work.  This  appeal  should  ordinarilv 
be  referred  to  the  class  rather  than  to  the  teacher's  fiat 
for  decision. 


246  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Value  in  questions  of  taste.  In  matters  of  opinion  or 
taste,  as  in  literary  style,  ethical  judgments,  and  other 
matters  not  susceptible  of  ready  demonstration  or  positive 
conclusion,  there  are  even  greater  educative  values  in  grad- 
ing by  pupils.  In  such  questions  the  grader  should  express 
his  criticism  concisely  in  words  and  be  prepared  to  defend 
his  position.  If  the  author  does  not  accept  the  criticism, 
it  is  a  point  on  which  the  judgment  of  the  class  will  doubt- 
less need  developing.  It  is  then  brought  up  in  class  for 
discussion,  the  parties  to  the  disagreement  leading  the 
argument  and  being  supported  by  all  who  have  opinions 
to  offer  on  the  subject.  The  debate  is  kept  within  parlia- 
mentary limitations  by  the  teacher,  who  acts  as  presiding 
official .  If  there  is  a  tendency  to  ramble  and  repeat,  each 
side  may  be  required  to  reduce  its  points  to  writing  on 
the  board,  where  all  may  see.  If  there  is  a  contradiction 
as  to  facts,  authorities  should  be  demanded  of  both.  As 
long  as  there  is  real  difference  of  opinion,  the  question 
is  well  worthy  of  being  held  over  from  day  to  day,  while 
materials  are  being  gathered  and  prepared  for  presentation. 
The  curriculum  can  contain  no  lessons  of  greater  educative 
value  than  genuinely  motivated  discussions  of  this  sort. 
Whenever  the  teacher  injects  an  authoritative  decision,  the 
whole  matter  drops  "  with  a  dull  and  sickening  thud." 
//  is  not  t/ir  coiicl/tsiou  but  the  i!;cuiiiiic  discHssio)i  that 
is  of  value.  Nevertheless,  the  whole  discussion  must  be 
a  search  for  truth  and  light.  Whenever  iJic  class  is  con- 
vinced that  one  jnij^il  is  protracting  an  argument  through 
mere  stubbornness,  it  should  have  the  right  to  vote  to 
table  the  question  or  to  register  a  decision.  Pupils  should 
soon  learn  from  the  social  pressure  of  the  class  that  true 
debating  is  not  seeking  unfair  means  of  getting  decisions 
but  is  a  genuine  search  for  truth  and  ([uick  admission  of 
error  when  found. 


MARKING   EXERCISES  247 

Questions  susceptible  of  ready  verification  by  the  indi- 
vidual pupil  would,  of  course,  not  be  permitted  to  occupy 
the  time  of  the  whole  class.  Teachers  who  think  this  a 
slow  or  cumbersome  method  of  getting  papers  graded  should 
remember  that  tlicj'e  is  no  educative  value  in  merely  getting 
the  papers  marked ;  that  pupils  judgment  is  developed  by 
their  oivn  judging,  not  by  being  judged  by  a  teacher. 

The  teacher's  study  and  marking  of  the  papers.  The 
teacher  will  ordinarily  take  up  the  papers  after  the  writers 
of  them  have  scrutinized  the  grading  and  indicated  their 
agreement  or  disagreement.  He  may  then  read  all  the 
papers  or  none  as  may  seem  necessary,  and  record  what- 
ever marks  may  be  desirable.  Usually  he  will  select  a  few 
of  the  poorest  to  study  the  individual  needs  of  the  writers, 
and  some  medium  and  some  of  the  best  from  which  to 
study  the  needs  of  the  class  as  a  whole.  Thus  he  guides 
his  further  procedure  in  his  teaching.  He  may  direct  his 
entire  attention  to  some  particular  problem  or  aspect  of  the 
work  to  determine  the  cause  of  some  weakness  in  his  teach- 
ing. One  soon  learns  that  there  are  some  pupils  who  need 
close  watching  either  in  their  writing  or  their  grading,  and 
their  work  is  selected  with  sufficient  regularity  to  spur  them 
to  the  greatest  care.  Other  papers  one  selects  to  check 
on  some  individual  instruction  which  has  been  given.  Still 
other  papers  are  picked  out  from  the  pile  for  the  sheer  joy 
of  reading  a  good  paper  and  watching  the  glorious  unfolding 
of  capacities  in  a  promising  pupil.  Obviously  those  selected 
for  study  will  vary  from  day  to  day  as  may  be  most  helpful 
in  checking  up  one's  daily  progress  notes  and  clearing  his 
mind  as  to  his  teaching  problems. 

Sometimes  the  teacher  will  return  to  the  pupils  only  those 
papers  on  which  he  has  made  comments,  sometimes  he  will 
return  all  of  them,  and  sometimes  none  at  all.  It  is  best 
that  papers  should  come  back  to  the  pupil  onl)'  when  they 


248  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

will  be  received  and  studied  eagerly.  It  they  are  destined 
to  go  unheeded  to  the  wastebasket,  let  the  teacher  put  them 
there.  Notebooks  and  many  important  papers  should  be  kept 
permanently  by  the  pupil  for  future  reference  or  comparison. 
Instructive  comments.  The  teacher's  comments  on  the 
papers  should  not  be  in  symbols  or  grades  ;  thc\'  should  be 
personal  and  broad.  He  judges  the  pupil,  not  the  paper. 
Formality  in  his  grading  should  be  taboo  and  routine 
marking  abhorred.  The  following  teachers'  comments  are 
quoted  at  random  : 

Your  penmanship  is  getting  careless  at  times.  You  must 
improve  or  return  to  the  drill  class.  Do  your  best  on  ei'ery  paper 
and  you  will  not  need  the  writing  drill. 

Too  many  words  here  that  add  nothing  to  the  meaning.  Note 
those  I  have  underlined.  Rewrite  the  page  in  the  fewest  words  that 
will  express  your  exact  meaning  and  hand  in  w  ilh  this  to-morrow. 

A  paper  as  neat  as  this  is  something  to  be  ])roud  of.  Show  it 
to  your  parents  and  keep  it  as  a  model. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  note  the  rapid  improvement  vou  arc  making 
in  the  clearness  and  force  of  your  statements.  Make  every  paper 
the  best  you  can,  and  that  best  will  soon  become  easy. 

Look  up  exact  meaning  of  words  I  liave  douhk'-unckTlined. 
Can  you  find  others  which  express  your  meaning  more  i^reciscly  ? 
Can  you  defend  by  actual  instances  the  statements  of  your  second 
paragraph  ? 

There  is  no  drudgery  in  marking  papers  in  this  manner. 
There  is  no  monotony,  no  weary  driving  when  one  is  tired 
and  unfit  to  judge.  In  fact,  there  is  very  little  in  all  school 
life  of  more  interest  and  greater  educative  efficiency  than 
marking  jxipers  and  studying  the  progress  of  class  and 
individuals  from  day  to  day.  .Such  a  change  from  routine 
grind  to  appreciative  judging  and  planning  lifts  the  work 
from  pedagogical  ditch-digging  to  expert  jDrofessional  thinking 
on  the  highest  plane. 


iMARKIXG   EXERCISES  249 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Taking  several  sets  of  exercises  at  random  from  differ- 
ent grades  or  classes,  classify  all  errors  as  "  excusable "  and 
"  inexcusable."' 

2.  Write  a  summary  of  the  effects  of  permitting  children  to 
hand  in  papers  containing  errors  which  they  themselves  might 
have  corrected. 

3.  Write  a  summary  of  the  advantages  of  the  correcting  of 
papers  by  pupils ;  (ij)  to  the  writers  of  the  papers ;  {l>)  to  the 
critics ;  (c)  to  the  teacher. 

4.  What  objections  arc  there  to  a  teacher's  purposely  making 
errors  in  his  corrections  as  a  means  of  challenging  the  watchful- 
ness of  the  pupils  ? 

5.  Watch  carefully  and  make  a  precise  statement  of  the  reac- 
tions of  children  when  a  set  of  papers  marked  by  a  teacher  are 
returned. 

6.  Make  a  similar  study  of  the  reactions  when  papers  graded 
by  other  children  are  returned. 

7.  Make  broad,  constructive  criticisms  on  a  few  typical  written 
exercises  and  study  the  probable  effect  of  the  criticisms  on  the 
pupils'  work. 

8.  \\'rite  out  all  objections  which  occur  to  you  to  this  plan  of 
pupil  grading.  Study  the  objections  to  see  (a)  if  thev  arc  valid ; 
{l))  by  what  adjustment  the  objections  may  be  avoided  and  the 
advantages  retained. 

READINGS 

Cakpentkk,  Baker,  and  Scott.    The  Teaching  of  English,  chap,  vii, 

pp.  142,  242. 
Kewedy.    Fundamentals  in  Methods,  p.  13S. 
Kendall   and   Mn<icK.     How  to  Teach  the  Fundamental  Subjects, 

pp.  95-100. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
MOTIVES  AND  INCENTIVES 

Motives  defined.  No  work  in  the  physical  world  or  the 
mental  goes  on  without  motive  power.  All  activity  is  but 
the  discharge  of  energy.  Energy  drives  the  train  along 
the  track  or  piles  up  destruction  in  tlie  wreck  ;  blasts  a 
tunnel  through  a  mountain  or  a  hole  through  a  battleship ; 
plans  a  crime,  writes  a  book,  or  utters  a  prayer.  Every 
activity  of  a  pupil,  good  or  bad,  is  fundamentally  a  discharge 
of  energy.  The  child  is  primarily  a  dynamo,  a  mechanism 
for  bringing  forces  to  school  and  releasing  them.  He  comes 
supplied  with  all  the  motive  power  necessary  to  make  the 
school  work  go.  The  teacher  has  no  need  to  concern  him- 
self with  a  problem  of  "  suppl)"ing  motives  "  if  by  motives 
we  mean  the  forces  which  drive. 

Motives,  in  this  sense,  are  impulses  incessantly  impelling 
the  child  to  activity.  They  are  not  matters  of  theory,  of 
pedagogical  ideals,  of  method,  or  of  organization.  They 
are  not  incentives,  which  are  external  stimuli,  as  shown 
later.  They  are  facts,  dominant  facts  of  child  life,  present 
and  potent,  whether  we  will  or  not,  whether  we  recognize 
them  or  not.  They  are  neither  good  nor  bad.  Eike  electricity 
or  dynamite,  they  are  forces  having  no  moral  character  in 
themselves  but  capable  f)f  limitless  good  or  bad,  according 
as  they  are  directed  in  harmony  with  or  in  antagonism  to 
the  interests  of  .society.  All  motives  are  subjective,  internal, 
and  natural. 

Classification.  The  motives,  then,  with  which  the  school 
has  to  deal  are  all  the  instinctive  tendencies  of  childhood 

250 


MOTIVES  AND  L\CENT1VES  251 

with  all  their  variations  and  modifications  acquired  through 
experience.  They  diverge,  converge,  overlap,  and  inter- 
mingle endlessly.  In  truth,  they  are  not  different  forces 
but  different  aspects  or  manifestations  of  the  same  infinitely 
complex  driving  force,  of  vital  energy,  —  of  life.  The  child 
that  is  "full  of  life"  is  full  of  motives  and  full  of  activity. 
No  classification  of  these  aspects  of  life  energy,  of  these 
impulses,  can  be  final  or  correct  to  the  exclusion  of  any 
other.  Any  inherited  tendency  which  can  be  discovered 
with  suflficient  distinctness  to  be  named  is  an  instinct.  Simi- 
larly, any  attitude,  habit,  interest,  or  other  acquired  tendency 
which  is  effective  for  directing  or  arousing  conduct  of  any 
sort  may  be  regarded  as  an  impulse  or  motive,  and  any  listing 
of  such  tendencies  which  serves  a  useful  purpose  is  legitimate. 

The  following  classification  of  motives  will  serve  for  the 
present  discussion  to  point  out  those  aspects  of  child  energy 
with  which  we  are  particularl}'  concerned. 

I.     LXDIVIDUALISTIC    OR    SeLF-SeEKING    TeXDEN'CIES 

1.  Virility — aspiration  to  "be  a  man,"  to  be  big  or  su- 
perior; and  its  counterpart,  femininity  —  to  be  attractive, 
admired,  and  womanly  ;  self-esteem. 

2.  Obedience  or  submission  to  guidance  and  protection, 
changing,  especially  at  adolescence,  to  self-reliance  and 
independence. 

3.  Self-assertion,  combativeness,  insistence  on  "  rights." 

4.  Greed,  acquisitiveness,  ownership. 

5.  Pride,  envy,  and  jealousy. 

6.  Partiality  for  one's  own, — as  one's  parents,  familv. 
friends,  and  possessions. 

All  these  are  more  or  less  modified  b\-  and  are  even 
dependent  on  the  following : 


252  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

11.    Social  ok  Gkoi'p-Sf.kxixo  Tkndkncies 

1 .  Fear  of  disapproval  of  others. 

2.  Desire  for  the  approval  of  others,  especially  of  one's 
peers. 

3.  Cooperative  impulse,  seeking  mutual  welfare. 

4.  Spirit  of  service,  complete  unselfishness. 

III.    Tendencies  which  Motivate  School  Work 
Directly 

1 .  Love  of  mental  activity  ;  of  sensory  experiences,  im- 
agery, of  rational  and  emotional  processes  of  every  kind. 

(a)  Interest  in  any  situation  which  appeals  to  one  as  a 
problem  of  significance  ;  curiosity,  experimentation,  puzzle- 
solving. 

{b)   Interest  in  the  new,  unusual,  vivid,  striking. 

(r)  Interest  in  human  beings  —  their  doings,  history,  cus- 
toms, emotions  —  and  in  personified  things. 

{d)  Tendency  to  organize  ideas,  form  concepts,  classify, 
systematize, 

(^)  Love  of  emotional  excitement,  whether  occasion  be 
joyous,  exalting,  sad,  horrible. 

2.  Love  of  physical  activity. 

(«)   Play,  dramatization,  impersonations,  etc. 

{b)  Constructiveness,  love  of  achievement,  attainment, 
accomplishment,  overcoming  difficulties. 

{c)  Restlessness,  organic  need  for  much  bodily  move- 
ment,  physical   energy,   vigor. 

3.  {a)  Tendency  to  imitate  certain  observed  or  suggested 
movements,  expressions,  thought  processes,  and  emotional 
attitudes. 

{b)  Tendency  to  repeat  acts  and  exjx-riences  which  are 
agreeable. 


MOTIVES  AND  INCENTIVES  253 

IV.    /Esthetic,  Ethical  and  Religious 

1.  Love  of  beauty,  harmony,  rhythm,  rhyme,  etc. 

2.  Moral  impulses,  love  of  doing  right,  conscience. 

3.  Admiration  for  moral  qualities  in  others. 

4.  Reverence,  worship,  religious  aspiration  and  exaltation. 
All  these  are  teaching  resources,  ready  for  use  or  easily 

aroused.  They  are  the  springs  of  action  which  the  teacher 
must  direct  if  he  would  govern  or  teach.  According  as  it 
is  directed  the  same  impulse  may  impel  the  child  to  the 
most  virtuous  conduct  or  to  the  most  vicious.  The  same 
innate  motives  may  drive  him  successfully  through  all  the 
tasks  of  school  years  or  they  may  drive  him  out  of  school. 

The  child  is  a  social  being.  Both  pedagogical  discussions 
and  school  ])racticc  have  usually  assumed  that  the  efficient 
forces  of  child  life  are  individualistic,  such  as  are  named  in 
our  group  I,  or  even  more  primitive  and  animal-like  impulses 
than  these.  The  truth  is  that  the  impulses  of  our  second 
group  will  completely  overshadow  and  smother  out  those 
of  the  self-seeking  sort  if  given  a  reasonable  chance. 

Interested  in  school  work  directly.  (Juite  as  blind  as  the 
failure  to  recognize  the  social  motive  in  children  has  been 
the  oversight  of  the  fact  that  children  normally  do  love 
well-adapted  school  work  for  its  own  sake.  While  much  of 
our  arbitrary  and  abstract  subject  matter  and  much  of  our 
unnatural  methods  of  teaching  are  indeed  distasteful,  no 
one  who  has  studied  children  actually  at  work  in  a  modern 
well-taught  elementary  school  can  doubt  that  such  interests 
as  we  have  listed  in  the  third  group  are  present  and  active 
in  the  great  majority  of  the  children  most  of  the  time. 
The  children  commonly  do  not  work  because  of  any  e.xtra- 
neous  incentive  whatever.  They  work  because  the  task  is 
pleasant  in  itself  and  is  the  strongest  immediate  interest. 
These  tendencies  may  indeed  be  star\ed   or  pcr\erted,  or 


254  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

the}-  may  be  discouraged  by  disagreeable  effects  following 
early  efforts  at  expression  in  school,  such  as  being  required 
to  "speak  up"  when  they  have  nothing  to  say  or  "shut 
up  "  when  they  want  to  say  something,  but  they  are  none 
the  less  real  and  efficient  if  wdsely  managed.  As  further 
discussion  of  this  matter  would  intrude  upon  the  ]5remises 
of  teaching  methods,  we  shall  turn  to  the  social  motive  and 
attempt  to  establish  its  validity  as  a  basis  of  government. 

Normal  motives  social  and  mixed.  In  very  young  chil- 
dren, in  those  of  abnormall\-  low  intellect,  and  in  any  per- 
son under  stress  of  passion  or  of  physical  needs,  simple, 
primitive,  and  individualistic  impulses  ordinarily  dominate. 
But  civilized  persons  in  normal  activities  are  governed  by 
impulses  more  or  less  mixed  or  blended  and  mainly  social. 
We  are  first  of  all  members  of  societ}\  Even  our  most 
selfish  aims  in  the  business  of  life  seek  for  us  social  pleasures, 
popular  approval,  and  distinction  in  the  eyes  of  the  public. 
Our  means  of  attaining  these  social  ends  are  likewise  fixed 
by  society  rather  than  by  ourselves.  Ouv  labor  is  done  to 
satisfy  some  need  of  the  social  organism,  and  we  are  paid 
for  our  efforts  by  society  at  a  valuation  fixed  by  itself  and 
in  coin  of  its  own  determining. 

Forms  and  evidences  of  social  control.  The /car  of  disap- 
proval manifests  itself  with  the  first  "  self-consciousness." 
No  fear  of  physical  punishment  is  more  keen  than  the 
dread  of  ridicule,  of  being  called  "  fraidy-cat  "  or  "sissy"; 
of  being  forced  to  wear  curls  or  kilts  after  one's  fellows 
think  they  should  be  discarded,  or  a  style  of  dress  that 
"  nobody  's  wearing  now."  Tiiis  fear  of  the  disapproval  of 
one's  peers  is  what  makes  effective  "  the  rules  of  the  game," 
whether  of  "  I  spy,"  football,  poker,  or  stock  speculation.  It 
selects  our  clothing,  our  automobiles,  and  our  college  ;  it  de- 
termines the  choice  of  our  words,  the  steps  of  our  dances, 
and  almost  the  last  detail  of  our  work  and  of  our  recreation. 


MOTIVES  AND  INCENTIVES  255 

On  the  positive  side,  the  love  of  social  approval  is  the 
force  which  drives  the  wheels  of  the  world's  work  —  except, 
as  has  been  said,  under  pressure  of  strong  emotion  or  phys- 
ical want.  It  is  the  heart  of  all  social,  literary,  financial, 
and  political  ambition.  It  is  the  essence  of  leadership  and 
of  competitive  activity.  The  fear  of  disapproval  prevents 
wrongdoing ;  the  love  of  approval  wins  victories.  The  one 
restrains  within  the  bonds  of  propriety  ;  the  other  impels  to 
achievement.  Together  they  give  morality  and  efficiency  ; 
they  make  one's  very  selfishness  social. 

Self-interest  is  more  completely  socialized  when  society 
is  no  longer  regarded  as  a  sort  of  external  and  antagonistic 
alter  ego,  hedging  individualistic  impulses,  but  has  become 
thoroughly  identified  in  interests  with  the  narrower  self. 
When  the  individual  is  so  merged  into  the  group  that  he 
finds  his  pleasure  and  profit  in  its  gains  and  his  griefs  in 
its  misfortunes,  he  has  attained  tJic  cooperative  stage.  This 
""  enlightened  selfishness  "  means  genuine  teamwork  without 
the  grand-stand  plays.  It  is  the  bond  of  the  much-discussed 
"gang  spirit"  of  adolescent  boys.  It  is  the  substance  of 
the  Boy-Scout  movement.  It  will  lead  a  bov  to  submit 
to  any  suffering  rather  than  "  peach  on  the  gang."  It  will 
cause  him  joyfully  to  endure  unlimited  severity  and  monotonv 
of  training  before  a  football  contest  and  the  most  painful 
bruises  and  fractures  in  the  course  of  the  game  —  all  for 
the  success  of  the  team.  Later  in  life  his  partnerships, 
his  church,  his  secret  orders,  are  manifestations  of  the  same 
impulse,  but  it  is  never  stronger  or  more  faithful  than 
in  adolescence. 

Yet  more  exalted  is  the  unselfish  spiiit  of  service.  Here 
primitive  individualism  has  wholly  abdicated  to  the  social 
impulse.  Little  children  love  to  give  their  pennies  to  the 
far  away  heathen  with  no  thought  of  return.  They  are  hap- 
piest in  doing  acts  of  unmixed  affection.    To  be  sure,  their 


256  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

impulses,  social  and  individual  alike,  are  objective  and  fleet- 
ing, and  they  are  lacking  in  a  fixity  of  purpose  that  only 
experience  and  developed  mentality  can  establish,  but  it  is 
slander  to  assert  that  their  motives  are  not  often  as  purely 
unselfish  and  generous  as  the  best  of  our  own.  It  is  a  sad 
mistake  to  insist  upon  intruding  a  material  and  selfish  re- 
ward upon  the  child  when  his  good  deed  is  its  own  suf- 
ficient reward.  In  adolescence  this  spirit  of  service  is  in  its 
most  beautiful  flower.  Then  are  lives  freely  dedicated  to  social, 
religious,  or  other  unselfish  causes.  The  price  of  personal 
sacrifice  is  rather  an  added  incentive  than  a  deterrent. 

Multiple  social  groups.  Parallel  with  the  varying  degrees 
in  which  the  self  is  merged  into  society,  we  should  note  the 
different  groups  which  call  forth  the  social  response.  There 
may  be  several  of  these  simultaneously  without  necessary 
conflict.  A  man  may  be  a  devoted  member  of  his  church, 
his  firm,  his  political  party,  and  his  various  fraternal  organ- 
izations without  inconsistency.  Only  when  his  groups  con- 
flict with  each  other  must  he  choose  between  them.  So  a 
boy  may  be  Iqyal  to  his  family,  his  class,  his  school,  his 
gang,  his  team,  and  his  fraternity.  That  in  his  loyalty  he 
should  occasionallv  adhere  to  the  gang  in  preference  to  the 
school  is  due  to  two  facts  :  first,  that  there  is  antagonism 
between  the  two  ;  and  second,  that  the  gang  is  more  in  ac- 
cord with  his  nature.  The  antagonism  may  he  due  in  part 
to  evil  tendencies  in  the  gang,  but  the  gang's  hold  upon  him 
is  due  to  its  essential  boyishness.  The  former  is  incidental, 
the  latter  is  fundamental.  The  evil  may  be  eliminated  from 
the  gang,  and  the  bo\ishness  may  be  l^-ought  into  the 
school  activities. 

Sympathy  limited  by  knowledge.  The  range  of  one's 
social  svmpathy  is  measured  by  the  breadth  of  his  knowledge 
and  experience.  Travel  is  the  cure  for  sectionalism,  and 
knowledge  for  narrow  prejudice.    The  same  social  impulse 


MOTIVES  AND   INCENTIVES  257 

may  develop  into  a  neighborhood  feud,  state  loyalty,  national 
patriotism,  or  service  to  mankind.  Partisan  prejudice  is  the 
signpost  of  the  limit  of  one's  knowledge.  A  chief  responsi- 
bility of  the  schools  which  society  maintains  is  to  broaden  the 
pupil's  sympathies  and  to  quicken  his  social  consciousness. 

Success  of  socialized  school  work.  There  are  available 
many  interesting  detailed  accounts  of  the  socialization  of 
work  and  play  in  school.  In  such  works  as  the  Year  Books 
of  the  Francis  W.  Parker  School  and  in  Scott's  "'  Social 
Education,"  Dewey's  "  Schools  of  To-morrow,"  and  in  other 
books  and  periodicals,  we  have  a  revelation  of  the  springs  of 
efficient  and  happy  learning  that  makes  one  wonder  w^hether 
our  whole  traditional  system  of  organization  and  studies  is  not 
a  grotesque  blunder.  Children  have  struggled  so  laboriously 
and  uninspiringly  for  pitifully  meager  results,  while  the  pupils 
of  those  radical  schools  seem  to  be  playing  their  way  into 
rich  experiences  and  large  abilities.  But  we  must  forego  the 
temptation  to  intnxluce  descriptions  of  these  striking  types 
of  the  socialized  school.  We  are  concerned  rather  with  that 
more  conservative  use  of  the  social  motives  which  may  be 
applied  by  any  teacher  in  any  school  with  any  schedule  or 
course  of  study.  We  must  meet  the  teacher's  chronic  ex- 
cuse—  "  no  time  for  that  sort  of  thing  "  — and  the  superin- 
tendent's confidential  complaint  —  "  no  teachers  capable  of 
that  sort  of  thing."  Still  it  is  true  that  the  right  sort  of  will 
has  always  managed  to  find  some  sort  of  way,  and  superior 
wills  rather  than  superior  means  have  accomplished  all  that 
has  been  done. 

Methods  of  using  the  social  motive.  The  key  to  social 
inotivation  is  gn>i/p  cooperation  in  iJie  sohitioii  of  i^eniiiiie 
problcvis.  In  discussing  the  organization  of  the  school,  the 
establishing  of  routine,  the  grading  of  exercises,  and  else- 
where, we  have  found  that  this  key  opens  the  door  to  both 
simplicity  of  government  and  increase  of  educative  values. 


258  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Practicallv,  if  not  fundamentallv,  every  problem  of  the  course 
of  study  through  which  the  child  must  work  his  way  is  a 
genuine  problem  for  his  solution.  Its  introduction  into  the 
course  may  have  been  arbitrar)-  and  unnatural,  but  it  is  none 
the  less  his  problem  if  it  is  there.  Therefore,  without  ven- 
turing into  that  attractive  wilderness  of  selecting  a  content 
which  will  be  self-motivating,  we  may  consider  the  motivation 
of  the  traditional  school  tasks. 

Group  competition.  It  is  noticeable  in  school  fairs  and 
exhibitions  that  almost  any  child  is  more  intensely  interested 
in  the  contests  of  his  class  or  his  school  than  he  is  in  those 
in  which  he  is  an  individual  contestant.  Few  children  are 
more  anxious  to  see  their  own  names  on  the  honor  roll  than 
they  are  to  have  their  class  win  a  competitive  distinction. 
A  manual-training  or  map-making  project  or  study  of  some 
practical  local  problem  by  a  group  arouses  far  more  interest 
and  activity  than  solitary  efforts  of  the  same  sort.  Each 
pupil  gathers  enthusiasm,  knowledge,  and  lasting  impressions 
from  all,  and  all  from  each.  Only  let  each  pupil  recognize 
that  Jiis  personal  problem  is  to  attain  a  ee?'tain  ability  rather 
than  to  "  get  over  the  lesson,"  and  instead  of  our  demanding 
that  each  get  up  the  lesson  without  help  we  shall  soon  dis- 
cover that  self-organized  cooperative  study  is  best  for  both 
weak  and  strong  and  is  more  truly  educative  than  a  large 
proportion  of  the  recitations  that  teachers  conduct. 

Contributions  to  the  class  group  in  "content"  studies. 
Daily  recitations  particularly  are  suffering  from  lack  of  social 
motivation.  In  any  "content  subject"  there  is  abundant 
opportunity  for  individuals  to  make  genuine  contributions 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  class.  Let  each  pupil  offer  to  the 
class  any  interesting  facts  which  he  may  have  gathered  in 
the  library,  at  home,  from  his  neighbors,  from  the  teacher, 
or  wherever  he  can.  Let  the  class  as  well  as  the  ])upil  know 
that  this  is  their  only  instruction  on  these  points  and  hold 


MOTIVES  AND  INCENTIVES  259 

them  responsible  for  it.  The  pupil  is  not  assigned  a  topic 
on  which  he  is  to  recite  to  the  teacher  but  one  on  which  he 
is  to  find  out  what  facts  he  can  and  get  the  class  to  know 
them.  He  has  a  genuine  audience  to  address  and  they  a  gen- 
uine necessity  for  listening.  Together  they  are  a  genuine 
social  organization  for  mutual  progress.  It  is  well  for  him 
to  review  and  test  the  class  on  his  topic.  One  who  has  not 
observed  such  a  recitation  cannot  appreciate  the  increase  of 
earnestness  and  intelligence  of  study,  clearness  of  topical 
organization,  forcefulness  of  expression,  which  result  from 
this  change  of  attitude  among  the  pupils.  Incidentally,  far 
more  material  is  presented  and  more  active  discussions  are 
aroused.  As  these  reports  by  pupils  constitute  the  exposition 
and  illustrations  of  the  textbook  skeleton  of  the  lesson,  the 
latter  may  be  learned  almost  incidentally  and  needs  but  to 
be  reviewed  and  properly  emphasized  by  the  teacher.  Even 
this  may  be  done  by  the  pupils  in  more  advanced  classes. 
As  in  the  plan  for  grading  exercises,  already  discussed,  there 
is  an  attitude  of  active  challenge  toward  the  work  of  a  peer 
which  is  wholly  lacking  in  the  acceptance  of  authority  from 
the  teacher  and  text.  By  being  held  responsible  for  the 
knowledge  of  the  class  on  his  topic  the  pupil  soon  learns 
the  value  of  definiteness  of  viewpoint  and  clearness  of  pres- 
entation. Better  language  training  can  hardly  be  conceived. 
From  primary  pupils  to  college  seniors  such  socialization  of 
the  study  and  recitation  will  prove  effective  if  gradually  and 
appropriately  introduced  —  not  "adopted"  as  a  system. 

For  best  results  pupils  should  have  some  choice  in  the 
selection  of  topics.  The  socialization  may  be  still  further 
accomplished  by  assigning  occasional  larger  and  more  com- 
plex tasks  to  groups  of  pupils.  Such  groups  should  be  largely 
self-organized  and  self-directed.  If  a  genuine  responsibility 
rests  upon  them,  it  will  be  found  that  thev  will  soon  bring 
pressure  to  bear  upon  the  shirkers  and  in  course  of  time 


26o  SCHOOL  El  riClENCY 

will  seek  to  drive  out  the  drones  from  their  busy  hives.  The 
teacher,  of  course,  does  not  abandon  them  but  constantly 
studies  the  working  of  any  plan  he  uses  and  adjusts  it  to  meet 
difficulties  as  they  arise. 

In  "form"  studies.  In  formal  subjects  not  only  may  the 
same  plan  be  utilized  for  the  solution  of  more  difficult  prob- 
lems, for  bringing  in  practical  problems  from  the  home,  farm, 
or  shop,  but  there  is  a  particularly  happy  opportunity  in 
the  eliminating  of  troublesome  deficiencies. 

Remedying  deficiencies.  In  every  class  there  are  individuals 
deficient  in  [^articular  abilities  —  in  spelling,  multiplication, 
writing,  or  other  capacity.  If  the  teacher  has  interpreted 
the  course  of  study  into  abilities  to  be  attained  rather  than 
ground  to  be  covered,  as  we  have  elsewhere  outlined,  and  the 
particular  ability  demanded  of  the  grade  has  been  made  en- 
tirely clear  to  the  pupils  themselves  ;  if  they  have  been  shown 
how  vitally  that  ability  will  enter  into  all  their  subsequent 
work,  how  the  lack  of  it  will  increase  their  labor  and  retard 
their  progress  at  every  point,  —  they  will  welcome  the  sugges- 
tion of  a  voluntary  "  multiplication  club,"  "  spelling  club,"  or 
a  "  penmanship-improvement  association."  These  are  social 
groups  in  the  best  sense,  self-organized,  self-directed,  seek- 
ing to  meet  a  very  genuine  and  pressing  need.  Their  mutual 
stimulation  and  helpfulness  accomplish  results  in  weeding 
out  deficiencies  as  the  solitary  drilling  of  a  deficient  and  dis- 
couraged individual  cannot  hope  to  do.  Every  teacher  knows 
that  he  who  is  asking  the  questions  is  commonly  getting 
better  drill  than  one  who  is  answering  them.  Most  mere  drill 
work  can  be  conducted  by  pupils  as  well  as  by  the  teacher, 
and  often  by  a  deficient  pupil  with  maximum  total  values. 

Group  self -correction.  An  excellent  plan  for  social  co- 
operation of  a  different  sort  in  eliminating  common  errors 
of  speech  is  described  by  Kendall  and  Mirick.^  A  teacher 
1  How  to  Teach  the  Fundamental  .Subjects,  p.  63. 


MOTIVES  AND  INCENTIVES  261 

was  asked  to  prepare  a  list  of  sucli  errors  made  by  her  class. 
In  the  true  social  spirit  she  asked  the  children  to  help.  For 
two  weeks  each  child  was  a  detective,  listing  every  error  he 
heard  in  or  around  the  school.  These  lists  were  classified, 
and  correct  forms  were  put  on  the  board  and  drilled  upon. 
Then  each  child  became  a  policeman  to  enforce  the  laws  of 
good  usage.  Then  competitive  groups  in  correct  speech  were 
organized  on  the  pupils'  initiative  and  daily  bulletins  posted. 
"  Thus  by  tiie  end  of  about  five  weeks  these  pupils  had  be- 
come thoroughly  alive  to  the  values  in  words  and  sentences, 
and  the  teacher  very  wisely  dropped  this  particular  feature 
of  language  training  before  interest  flagged,  transferring  the 
interest  to  the  composition  lessons."   Note  that  last  statement. 

The  success  of  such  socialized  incentives  will  depend 
largely  on  the  teacher's  knowing  how  to  suggest  rather 
than  direct,  to  hint  rather  than  tell,  to  respond  to  calls  for 
guidance  rather  than  intrude  plans,  and  in  knowing  when  to 
turn  flagging  attention  to  a  new  task  or  to  a  new  means 
of  attack  on  the  same  jjroljlem. 

Social  shortcomings  of  family  and  school.  In  summar)', 
we  may  assert  unqualifiedl)'  that  school  children  are  pri- 
marily social  beings  ;  that  social  impulses  are  not  only 
present  and  competent  to  direct  school  work  and  conduct, 
but  that  these  forces  are  the  dominant  ones.  Only  the 
failure  of  family  and  school  government  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  this  supreme  fact  of  child  nature  can  account  for 
the  widely  prevailing  idea  and  oft-repeated  statement  that 
children  are  fundamentally  selfish  and  nonsocial.  Their 
inferiority  to  adults  in  llie  social  spirit,  it"  it  is  true  at  all, 
is  merely  in  the  lack  of  experience,  of  a  background  of 
habits  and  farseeing  purposes  —  deficiencies  which  charac- 
terize all  their  other  impulses  as  well  and  wliich  it  is  the 
responsibilit)'  of  the  educative  process  itself  to  correct. 
Nevertheless,  as   Irving  King  has  put   it, 


262  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

The  school  has  tended  to  deal  with  its  children  as  individuals, 
when  they  are  in  reality  social  beings.  It  has  tried  to  train  them 
as  individuals  in  the  virtues  of  truthfulness,  justice,  loyalty,  fair 
play,  and  lawfulness.  As  abstract  statements  these  mean  nothing 
to  the  children,  but,  when  illustrated  by  the  intimate  associations 
of  the  playground,  gang,  club,  or  school  itself,  they  stand  out  with 
convincing  force. ^ 

Principles  of  motivation.  A  few  guiding  principles  which 
will  aid  in  determining  the  choice  of  motives  may  be 
given  : 

1.  J\'i>  viotivc  is  good  unless  it  tuotiiurtos.  It  is  the 
softest  of  "  soft  pedagogy "  to  allow  a  duty  to  remain 
undone  because  an  appeal  to  a  lofty  motive  brings  no 
response. 

2.  Toidcncics  stToigthcn  by  tJicir  exercise.  Of  several 
impulses,  give  practice  to  the  one  that  needs  to  be  devel- 
oped rather  than  to  one  that  is  already  objectionably  con- 
spicuous ;  for  example,  arouse  the  courage  of  the  timid  child 
and  the  modesty  of  the  brazen  one. 

3.  Aj-07ise  higher  motives  in  prefcirncc  to  lower.  The 
latter  are  primitive,  deep-rooted  in  our  subhuman  anteced- 
ents, always  present,  easily  actuated,  and  will  take  care  of 
themselves.  The  former  are  efficient  but  easily  displaced 
and  need  development.  Do  not  permit  a  child  to  perform 
a  task  through  selfish  rivalry  which  he  will  do  through 
cooperation  or  aesthetic  interest. 

4.  Higher  motives  must  grow,  slowh',  through  long  exer- 
cise, nourishment,  and  encouragement.  They  cannot  be 
taught  or  given,  nor  can  they  grow  through  neglect  or 
disparagement.  Because  a  child  "lacks  a  sense  of  honor" 
is  reason  enough  for  trusting  him  as  much  as  possible. 
Through  little  victories  only  docs  he  gain  strength  for 
bigger  ones. 

1  Education  for  Social  Lflicicncy,  p.  145. 


MOTIVES  AND   IXCENTIVES  263 

5,  Mak'c  pcymanciit  rather  than  temporary  eouiectiotis. 
With  a  given  sort  of  activity  seek  to  connect  the  impulse 
which  should  always  motivate  it.  Composition  work  should 
be  done  through  a  genuine  desire  to  express  thought,  and 
the  study  of  literature  through  a  love  of  its  beauty  and  its 
dramatic  interest.  These  should  not  be  unnecessarily  sup- 
planted by  a  temporary  rix'alr}'  for  grades  nor  by  a  group 
incentive. 

6.  Ideally,  eacJi  task  should  set  off  its  appropriate  motive 
directly.  In  Nature's  education  this  is  true,  and  it  would 
be  true  in  an  ideal  curriculum  taught  with  ideal  methods. 
This  is  the  ultimate  standard  of  economy  and  efficiency. 
Students  of  childhood  are  coming  surely  to  agreement  on 
the  conclusion  that  any  activity  so  foreign  to  the  native 
impulses  of  the  child  that  it  cannot  directly  stimulate  an 
effective  motivation  is  by  that  fact  not  adapted  to  the  stage 
of  the  child's  development.  Intellectual  tastes,  like  tastes 
gastronomic,  are  normally  good  indices  of  one's  real  needs, 
but  both  are  easily  perverted.  Motives  thus  directly  called 
forth  by  the  work  itself,  instead  of  by  a  mediating  incentive, 
are  reasonably  sure  to  be  wholesome  and  well  adapted. 

Meaning  of  incentive.  Restricting  the  use  of  motive,  as 
we  have,  to  its  original  and  principal  meaning,  we  shall 
likewise  use  ijieentive  in  its  original  sense  as  "  that  which 
strikes  up  the  tune,"  sets  off  the  activity,  stirs  up  or  incites 
the  motive  to  action.  The  motive  is  the  driving  force ;  the 
incentive  is  the  device  which  couples  it  to  the  task  to  be 
performed.  This  distinction  kept  clearly  in  mind  would 
help  to  clear  up  much  current  confusion  in  technical  dis- 
cussions as  well  as  in  practice.^ 

*  A  careful  comparison  of  the  uses  of  the  terms  motixe  and  iiuetitivf 
among  writers  on  education  shows  a  serious  lack  of  agreement.  Popularly 
and  in  most  hooks  they  are  used  interchangeably,  while  works  on  school 
management  have  generally  made  the  word  incetithrs  cover,  with  various 
differences,  the  whole  field  discussed  in  this  chapter.    White  distinctly 


264  SCHOOL   EFFICIENCY 

Use  of  incentives.  The  common  error  of  the  unscientific 
teacher  is  to  assume  that  the  incentive  affects  the  con- 
duct directly.  He  is  content  to  measure  the  efficacy  of  a 
prize  by  the  number  or  quality  of  essays  written  for  it, 
oblivious  whether  the  motive  aroused  was  greed,  rivalry, 
class  spirit,  or  love  of  expression  ;  whether  the  winner  in- 
creased more  in  pride  of  conquest  than  in  literary  interest ; 
whether  the  result  is  more  or  less  of  permanent  tendency 
to  give  literary  expression  to  one's  ideas. 

Where  there  is  a  child  there  are  motives  in  abundance. 
Where  there  is  a  school  there  are  tasks  to 'be  done.  Idle- 
ness and  retardation  are  the  results  of  tasks  non motivated. 
Mischief  and  disorder  are  due  to  motives  without  tasks. 
School  government  and  teaching  is  the  business  of  connect- 
ing child-motives  to  educative  tasks,  finding  a  safe  outlet 
for  the  one  and  an  effective  force  for  the  other. 

Incentives  are  all  the  devices  known  to  teachers  for 
making,  these  necessary  connections.  They  include  marks, 
promotions,  honor  rolls,  rewards,  prizes,  and  punishments,  — 
all  schemes  intended  to  bring  school  activity  to  the  plane  of 
genuine  icork  b\"  affording  an  aim  outside  of  the  process  itself. 
They  also  include  contests,  games,  dramatization,  excursions, 

states  that  "  the  desires  that  thus  incite  or  impel  man  to  effort  are  called 
motives  or  incentives,"  with  a  note  that  incentive  is  used  for  either  a 
desire  or  its  object.  Bagley,  although  criticizing  White  on  the  ground  that 
the  child  must  be  educated  "when  he  is  unable  to  see  very  far  ahead," 
defines  incentive  as  "  the  idea  of  a  remote  end  toward  which  effort  is  to 
be  organized,"  and  then  speaks  of  pain  stimuli  as  incentives. 

Neither  White's  classification  of  incentives  as  natural  and  artificial  nor 
Hagley's  as  positive  and  ncgatir-e  will  bear  thorough  analysis,  nor  does 
either  prevent  its  author  from  bringing  into  his  discussion  incentives  that 
are  neither  ideas  nor  desires  nor  the  objects  of  desires.  Hoth  statements  fail 
in  detailed  application  and  have  led  to  much  confusion  on  the  part  of 
numerous  writers  who  have  followed  them.  Similar  difficulties  are  readily 
noted  in  Dutton,  Salisbury,  Coigrove,  Arnold,  and  others.  The  distinctions 
in  this  chapter  have  proved  useful  in  the  author's  own  classes,  but  cannot 
be  further  defended  in  the  space  here  available. 


MOTIVES  AM)   INCENTIVES  265 

and  other  devices  seeking  to  make  the  process  itself  attractive 
and  tlius  approximating  the  character  of  educative  play. 
Even  so,  much  of  the  pupil's  daily  work  still  remains  on  the 
plane  of  dtnidi^cry  - — disagreeable  and  unmotivated. 

Classification  of  incentives.  Marks,  passes,  promotions, 
graduations,  and  degrees  are  expected  to  set  off  the  motive 
forces  of  ambition  and  love  of  approbation.  Their  chief 
defect  is  that  they  commonly  supplant  the  natural  interest 
in  school  work  and  bring  pupils  to  measure  the  worth  of 
all  efforts  in  percentages  and  credits. 

Honor  rolls,  distinctions,  and  other  intangible  individual 
rewards  arouse  rivalry  or  emulation.  They  are  mainly  anti- 
social and  can  ordinarily  appeal  to  but  the  few  who  least 
need  their  stimulation,  unless  they  are  made  so  common  as 
to  be  of  little  appeal  to  any. 

Tangible  rewards  and  prizes  have  the  same  defects  as 
the  intangible  and  the  further  defect  that  they  may  appeal 
to  selfish  greed,  jcal()us\-,  or  baser  motives  and  reactions. 

Commendation  is  a  gentle,  wholesome  stimulus,  with  no 
bad  effects  if  wisely  given  fo7-  effort,  which  the  child  con- 
trols, and  not  for  native  ability,  which  is  an  hereditary  gift. 
Censure  is  as  depressing  as  commendation  is  bracing. 
Censure  may  serve  as  an  effective  restraint  at  times,  but  is 
not  to  be  compared  in  efficiency  with  an  effective  redirection 
of  the  errant  energy. 

All  punishment  is  repressive  and  depressive.  It  is  some- 
times discussed  as  the  use  of  "  negative  incentives." 

Principles  of  incentives.  We  may  sum  up  our  viewpoint 
as  to  incentives  in  tlie  following  principles  : 

I.  The  best  use  of  incentives  is  their  elimination.  This 
is  in  the  same  sense  tliat  tlie  highest  ser\'iee  of  the  teacher 
is  to  make  himself  unnecessarv.  The  term  "  natural  incen- 
tives "  is  sometimes  applied  to  this  direct  motivation  of  work. 
In  our  meaninjj  of  the  term  all  incentives  are  "  artificial." 


266  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

2.  Give  preference  to  the  incentive  which  is  temporary 
and  easily  effaced.  Its  function  is  to  make  the  connection 
between  motive  and  task,  not  to  be  the  connection. 

3.  No  incentive  is  good  in  itself,  it  must  be  judged 
wholl)'  by  its  effectiveness. 

4.  Never  permit  the  incentive  to  become  the  end  and 
the  educative  process  the  means.  A  high-school  pupil 
happy  to  throw  aside  forever  his  Shakespeare  and  history 
as  soon  as  he  secures  his  diploma  is  a  shocking  illustra- 
tion of  the  confusion  of  means  and  ends.  Study  is  not  a 
means  to  getting  a  diploma,  but  the  diploma  is  a  means 
to  stimulating  study. 

5.  Avoid  elaborate,  complex  incentives  which  divert  atten- 
tion and  energy  from  the  work ;  machinery  which  con- 
sumes the  power.  Such  are  most  "systems"  of  marks  and 
"  merits "  and  the  more  cumbersome  student-government 
organizations. 

6.  Incentives  derive  their  effectiveness  from  the  social 
mind  of  the  class.  Promotions,  distinctions,  rewards,  and 
punishments  are  effective  in  proportion  as  the}'  are  irspectcd. 
A  whipping  may  be  a  joke,  a  matter  of  pride,  a  chal- 
lenge to  combat,  or  the  deepest  humiliation.  Remaining 
after  school  to  straighten  up  the  room  or  to  get  a  missed 
lesson  may  be  regarded  as  a  coveted  privilege  or  a  dreaded 
disgrace  according  to  the  associations  established  by  class 
traditions. 

7.  A  given  incentive  may  have  entirely  different  effects 
on  different  pupils  under  the  same  circumstances  or  on  the 
same  pupils  under  different  circumstances.  Commonly  there 
must  be  a  differentiation  by  the  teacher  as  to  the  application 
of  the  incentives  among  the  pupils. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  oversee  and  foresee 
the  operation  of  motives  and  so  to  manipulate  incentives 
as  to  attain   the  most   educative  results.     Not  disciplining 


MOTIVES  AND  IN'CENTIVES  267 

children  nor  transmitting  knowledge  is  the  business  of 
teaching,  but  wisely  choosing  motives  and  "giving  the  tune" 
to  each  so  as  to  bring  them  into  one  grand  social  and 
spiritual  harmony. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Compare  the  distinction  between  motives  and  incentiv'es  as 
given  in  this  chapter  with  those  given  or  implied  in  other  works. 

2.  Compare  the  classification  of  motives  with  other  lists  of  the 
sort.    What  aspects  of  impulse  seem  to  be  emphasized  in  each  ? 

3.  Obser\"c  indi\idual  children  at  work  in  school  and  out  and 
try  to  determine  what  sort  of  interest  or  impulse  is  impelling  in 
each  case.  Where  you  think  the  motives  are  mi.\ed,  seek  to 
analyze  them  into  as  elementary  factors  as  possible. 

4.  Describe  cases  in  which  the  teacher  found  it  necessary  to 
■find  some  specific  incentive  for  a  particular  task.  What  incentives 
were  used  ?     What  others  in  each  case  might  have  been  used  .'' 

5.  Find  instances,  if  you  can,  of  the  use  of  incentives  (a)  which 
are  not  effective  for  the  purposes  intended ;  (fi)  which  tend  to  dis- 
tract the  attention  from  the  task  or  lesson  to  the  incentive  rather 
than  to  fix  the  attention  directly  on  the  lesson ;  (r)  which  affect 
different  children  in  different  ways. 

6.  Find  instances  (ti)  where  you  think  a  higher  motive  than 
the  one  used  would  have  been  as  effective  for  the  purpose ; 
(/>)  where  the  motives  used  seem  to  be  objectionable  because  of 
the  traits  of  character  they  tend  to  develop  ;  (c)  where  the  motives 
are  themselves  desirable  but  not  as  effective  as  they  should  be  for 
the  immediate  purposes. 

7.  Describe  some  cases  in  which  the  teacher  has  used  some 
extraneous  incentive  to  get  the  attention  and  interest  of  the  chil- 
dren but  presently  the  interest  has  passed  over  wholly  into  the 
work  itself. 

8.  ]''ind  as  many  different  forms  and  applications  as  you  Ciui  of 
the  social  motive  in  school  work. 


268  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

READmOS 

AdAiMS.    Herbartian  Psycliolcigy  Applied  to  Education,  chap.  x. 

Baglev.    Classroom  Management,  chap.  xi. 

Baix.    Education  as  a  Science,  pp.  60-1  20. 

Betts.    The  Mind  and  its  Education,  pp.  199,  234. 

Keith.    Elementary  Education,  chaps,  vi-vii. 

King.    Education  for  Social  Efficiency,  chap.  viii. 

Kirkpatrick.    Fundamentals  of  Child-Study,  chap.  iv. 

O'Shea.    Social  Development  and  Education,  chaps,  i.  xi,  and  xiii. 

Pearsox.    The  \'italized  School,  chap.  xv. 

Scott.  Social  Education,  chap.  v. 

Sissox.    Essentials  of  Character,  chaps,  i  and  viii. 

Strayer.    a  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  chap.  ii. 

Thorndike.    Educational  Psychology  (Briefer  Course),  Part  I. 

White.    School  Management,  pp.  105,  130. 

Wilson,  H.  B.  and  G.  M.    Motivation  of  School  Work,  Part  I. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

PUNISHMENT 

Negative  incentives.  Disapproval,  threats,  and  punish- 
ments are  often  called  "  negative  incentives."  Their  pur- 
pose is  not  to  arouse  but  to  inhibit  the  functioning  of 
some  motive.  Instead  of  "giving  the  tune"  they  put  a 
quietus  upon  it.  If  education  means  the  act  of  leading  out, 
of  unfolding,  of  developing,  then  negative  incentives  a  pnori 
are  not  educative.  There  is  no  growth  through  nonactivity, 
no  education  in  stopping  activity.  Children  do  not  learn  by 
what  they  are  prevented  from  doing  nor  by  what  is  done  to 
them.  They  learn  only  by  their  own  actions  and  reactions. 
It  is  the  reaction  aroused  that  counts  in  the  case  of  the  nega- 
tive incentive.  This  is  not  always  the  sort  that  is  assumed 
by  the  teacher. 

Punishment  through  the  ages.  From  the  dim  dawn  of 
Egyptian  civilization  comes  the  proverb,  "  A  young  fellow 
has  a  back  ;  he  hears  when  we  strike  it."  Among  the  earli- 
est Hebrew  proverbs  we  ha\'c,  "  h^oolishness  is  bound  up  in 
the  heart  of  a  child  ;  but  the  rod  of  correction  shall  drive  it 
far  from  him."  From  those  primitive  days  to  the  present, 
"  practical  teachers  "  and  "  strong  disciplinarians  "  have  been 
emphatic  in  precept  and  practice  in  making  the  rod  the 
symbol  of  education. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  greatest  teaciiers  and  thinkers  of 
all  times  —  of  Scripture,  of  literature,  and  of  educational  his- 
tory—  have  both  practiced  and  advocated  lenient  methods. 
Not  on  account  of  some  soft  sentiment  or  fear  of  brutalizing 
the  child  have  they  taken  this  position,  but  because  teaching 

269 


270  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

through  punishment  is  hopelessly  inefficient.  Plato  wrote : 
"  No  study  pursued  under  compulsion  remains  rooted  in  the 
memory.  Hence  you  must  train  children  to  their  studies  in  a 
playful  manner  and  without  the  air  of  restraint."  Among  the 
stern  and  harsh  Romans,  Martial,  Cato,  Cicero,  and  Seneca 
protest  against  the  policy  of  ruling  by  the  rod,  Ouintilian, 
the  great  Roman  teacher  and  the  only  important  writer  of 
ancient  times  on  practical  school  government,  makes  a  most 
notable  plea  against  severity  in  school  discipline.  Vittorino 
da  Feltre  (i 378-1446),  the  next  teacher  of  children  to  rise 
to  historical  distinction,  was  renowned  for  his  avoidance  of 
physical  punishment,  for  tlie  self-government  of  his  boys, 
and  for  a  school  spirit  that  caused  his  institution  to  be 
known  as  the  "  Pleasant  House."  La  Salle's  "  Conduct  of 
the  Christian  Schools"  (1720)  gives  elaborate  rules  for  the 
infliction  of  penalties  worked  out  in  amusing  detail.  But  in 
181 1  these  Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools  considered 
prohibiting  corporal  punishment,  and  in  1870  I'rcrc  IMiilip 
said  for  them,  ""  Imperative  circumstances  no  longer  permit 
us  to  tolerate  corporal  punishment  in  our  schools." 

In  modern  times  the  list  of  those  who  denounce  corporal 
punishment  as  a  means  to  education  is  practically  identical 
with  the  list  of  those  who  have  contributed  materially  to 
educational  progress.  Meanwhile  the  tens  of  thousands  of 
forgotten  teachers  have  maintained  the  rule  of  the  rod  and 
the  sway  of  the  switch  and  have  persisted  in  misquoting 
Scripture  to  the  effect  that  sparing  the  rod  per  sc  spoils 
the  child. 

~"~  Principles  of  punishment.  We  mav  organize  our  discussion 
of  punishment  into  llie  following  j)rinci])les  : 

I.  Punishment  primarily  means  to  cause  pain.  This  can 
have  no  value  in  itself  and  must  be  justified,  if  at  all,  on  the 
ground  of  efficiency  in  obtaining  conditions  more  favorable 
for  educative  work. 


PUNISHMENT  271 

2.  Mere  submission,  sullen  or  servile,  is  not  a  condition 
favorable  for  educative  work.  It  is  more  often  wholly  incom- 
patible with  learning,  and  yet  it  is  often  mistaken  for  an 
indication  of  the  efficacy  of  punishment  inflicted. 

3.  Punishment  of  school  children  cannot  be  justified  on 
any  theory  of  retribution.  It  is  permissible  onl)'  as  it  may 
deter  the  punished  one  or  others  from  objectionable  conduct 
and  thus  make  desirable  conduct  possible.  No  pupil 
"  deserves "  anything  at  the  hands  of  his  teacher  except 
helpful  encouragement  and  wise  training. 

4.  The  best  possible  deterrent  of  wrong  conduct  is  right 
conduct.  No  amount  of  punishment  will  prevent  hands  that 
are  idle  from  doing  the  devil's  work,  and  no  amount  of  devil 
will  get  wholesomely  busied  hands  into  mischief. 

5.  Punishment  cannot  in  itself  be  an  incentive  or  motiva- 
tion for  mental  work.  The  motivation  is  still  to  be  accom- 
plished when  the  punishment  has  made  conditions  favorable 
for  the  work. 

6.  Must  p7vmotc  affection.  Punishment  which  brings  the 
child  and  teacher  into  more  sympathetic,  friendly,  and  mu- 
tually trustful  relations  is  good,  regardless  of  its  form  or  its 
severity".  That  punishment  which  ends  in  sullenness,  resent- 
ment, lack  of  confidence  in  the  teacher,  a  feeling  of  injustice 
or  unwillingness  to  cooperate,  has  been  a  failure  regardless 
of  refinement  or  brutality. 

7.  Radical  as  the  statement  may  seem,  the  one  test  of 
successful  punishment  is  that  it  meets  the  approval  of  the 
punished.  Usually  children  ma\'  be  brought  to  see  the  jus- 
tice of  any  right  punishment  before  it  is  inflicted.  They  will 
even  seek  it  througli  some  innate  sense  of  compensation. 
At  any  rate,  the  incick-nt  should  not  be  considered  closed 
until  the  corrected  child  has  been  drawn  nearer  to  the 
teacher  than  ever  before,  until  there  is  a  closer  heart  to 
heart  touch  between  tlicni  and  more  of  mutual  confidence, 


272  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

affection,  and  trust.  Only  then  has  punishment  been  effec- 
tive. Like  a  surgical  operation,  punishment  is  permissible 
only  under  pathological  necessity  and  is  to  be  judged  by  the 
subsequent  health  of  the  patient.  The  teacher  who  is  con- 
tent to  punish  a  child  "'  because  he  needs  it "  and  consider 
the  correcting  thus  accomplished  has  even  less  excuse  than 
a  surgeon  who  would  perform  a  serious  operation  and  leave 
the  patient  to  his  own  resources  to  recover  from  its  effects. 
It  is  not  an  operation  that  the  patient  needs,  but  health,  not 
punishment  that  the  child  is  in  need  of,  but  right  relations 
with  the  teacher  and  with  his  fellows. 

.  "  8,  Punishment  "  as  an  example  to  the  school  "  likewise 
can  be  measured  only  in  terms  of  the  permanent  attitude 
of  the  children  toward  the  teacher  and  toward  their  tasks. 
Immediate  results  are  very  deceptive.  "  Obedience,"  "  sub- 
mission," and  "  maintaining  authority  "  are  likely  to  cover 
the  children's  retreat  to  subtler  and  meaner  disobedience 
and  defiance  of  authority. 

9.  "  Lightiii}ig  principled  Punishment  which  must  be 
constantly  repeated  to  be  effective,  by  that  fact  proves  its  in- 
efficiency. Work  done  under  continuous  or  repeated  compul- 
sion has  slight  educative  value  and  engenders  a  repugnance 
which  usually  does  more  harm  than  the  work  does  good.  A 
small  boy  on  being  asked  why  lightning  never  strikes  twice 
in  the  same  place,  replied,  "  It  does  n't  have  to."  Effective 
punishment,  likewise,  does  n't  have  to  strike  repeatedly 
in  the  same  place.  Children  do  not  respect  the  sort  that 
does  have  to.  Penalties  lose  their  efficiency  as  they  become 
common.  When  "  nothing  but  a  licking  will  control  that 
boy,"  it  is  certain  that  the  licking  does  not. 

10.  I'unisliment  arising  from  the  teacher's  temper,  tem- 
perament, or  nervousness,  whatever  the  irritation  or  provoca- 
tion, or  inflicted  for  any  other  reason  than  a  sincere  and 
sympathetic    belief    tliat    the    child    or    the    school    will    be 


PUNISHMENT  273 

benefited  thereby,  is  not  a  question  of  school  management 
at  all.  Such  punishment  belongs  in  the  same  category  and 
deserves  the  same  consideration  it  would  have  if  inflicted  by 
the  irate  teacher  upon  a  fellow  teacher  or  other  citizen 
outside  of  the  schoolroom.  Morally,  psychologically,  and 
legally,  if  only  it  were  possible  to  prove  it,  such  an  act  is 
neither  more  nor  less  than  a  crime. 

II.  Except  for  the  criminal  sort  just  mentioned,  corporal 
punishment  is  not  necessarily  any  more  brutal  or  brutalizing 
than  keeping-in,  nagging,  scolding,  and  many  forms  of  the 
so-called  "  moral  suasion."  For  small  children  particularly, 
physical  pain  is  as  prompt  a  corrective  and  open  to  as  few 
real  objections  as  any  punishment  that  can  be  applied,  pro- 
vided always  that  the  spirit  of  it  and  the  conclusion  of  it 
accord  with  the  principles  already  stated. 

-12.  Last  resort  or  first  aid?  Corporal  punishment  should 
never  be  regarded  as  a  last  resort  —  tradition  to  the  contrar)^ 
notwithstanding.  It  is  so  immediate  and  tangible  that  it  is 
often  the  most  effective  and  refined  "  first  aid  "  to  cure  a 
child's  sullen  or  intractable  mood.  A  prompt  and  kindly 
switching,  particularly  by  a  mother  or  primary'  teacher,  will 
often  bring  a  little  one  to  repentant  tears  and  affectionate 
embraces  in  a  few  minutes,  with  no  sting  of  humiliation  and 
with  no  rebellious  mood  settled  into  a  habit.  A  "  spoiled 
child  "  may  be  brought  to  his  senses,  a  mischievous  con- 
spiracy nipped  in  the  bud,  or  a  '"  bully  "  posing  before  the 
class  as  superior  to  the  rule  of  the  school  may  ha\'e  the 
tables  turned  on  him  by  rapid-fire  corporal  correction.  A 
child  who  knows  that  all  other  means  of  governing  him  have 
been  tried  and  have  failed  and  that  mere  brute  force  is 
the  teacher's  sole  effective  authority  —  the  last  resort  —  does 
not  respect  that  government  even  though  for  the  moment 
he  may  submit  to  it.  He  is  being  taught  what  all  civiliza- 
tion is  seeking  to  make  untrue  —  that  physical  force  makes 


274  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

ultimate  right.  Most  assuredly  he  will  exercise  that  right 
whenever  and  wherever  he  believes  that  he  possesses  it. 
When  physical  coercion  is  a  last  resort  it  is  no  resort  for 
school  use.  The  unhappy  child  who  has  been  governed  all 
his  life  by  beatings,  whose  parents  have  found  that  "  the 
only  way  to  do  anything  with  him  is  to  whip  him,"  is  hope- 
lessly immune  to  educative  benefits  through  physical  com- 
pulsion. He,  more  than  most  children,  is  susceptible  to  the 
leading  of  genuine  sympathy,  appreciation,  and  trust.  At 
any  rate,  nothing  else  can  lead  him.  One  who  cannot  reach 
such  a  child  except  through  corporal  punishment  simply 
cannot  reach  him  at  all. 

Corporal  punishment,  like  a  powerful  drug,  is  immediate 
and  severe  in  its  effects  and  for  that  reason  must  be  used 
with  particular  discrimination.  If  used  at  all,  it  should  be 
used  promptly  and  thoroughly  before  the  disease  is  compli- 
cated or  aggravated.  Continued  use  is  the  surest  sign  of 
misuse.  Many  school  boards  prohibit  it  entirely.  It  is  better 
to  give  teachers  full  authority  to  use  the  rod  and  then  remove 
those  who  often  find  it  necessary  to  do  so. 

13.  Penalty  scJicdiilcs.  Punishments  predetermined  by 
rule  to  fit  designated  offenses  not  yet  committed  appeal  to 
many  teachers  as  "  fair  for  all  alike"  and  may  be  approved 
by  the  children  for  the  same  reason.  Hut  rules  cannot  con- 
sider the  spirit  in  which  an  offense  is  committed,  the  differ- 
ent natures  of  children,  home  influences,  special  conditions, 
and  momentary  temptations.  The  same  offense  cannot  de- 
serve precisely  the  same  punishment  on  different  occasions. 
Nor,  which  is  more  to  the  point,  can  the  same  penalty  have 
precisely  the  same  effect  on  different  children.  One  may 
be  overcome  with  agonies  of  humiliation,  disgrace  haunting 
his  waking  hours  and  terror  his  sleep,  while  another  philo- 
sophically considers  the  prescribed  penalty  a  fair  price  to 
pay  for  his  fun  or  for  his  stupidity  in  getting  caught  at  it. 


PUNISHMENT  275 

The  ascribing  of  definite  penalties  to  definite  offenses  tends 
to  cause  children  to  regard  the  offenses  as  a  list  of  pleasures 
with  prices  attached.  If  one  breaks  a  rule,  the  teacher  owes 
him  a  penalty  ;  if  he  gets  a  penalty  amiss,  he  has  but  to 
break  a  rule  to  get  even.  Furthermore,  it  is  human  nature 
to  believe  that  the  thing  which  has  a  price  is  a  thing  of 
value  and  to  be  desired. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  justifiable  to  digress  for  a 
word  on  the  psychology  of  specific  prizes  for  definite  tasks. 
Here  the  prize  is  the  good  thing  of  value  to  be  sought  and 
the  lesson  the  hard  thing  or  penalty  which  must  be  ex- 
changed for  it.  The  same  boy  who  would  whitewash  a  fence 
to  get  money  to  buy  a  jackknife  would  trade  the  jackknife 
for  the  privilege  of  whitewashing  the  fence  if  a  Tom  Sawyer 
were  at  hand  to  manipulate  incentives.  A  wise  generation 
of  teachers,  instead  of  viaking  the  child  clean  up  the  black- 
boards because  he  does  not  know  his  lesson,  permits  him 
to  clean  the  blackboard  because  he  does  know  his  lesson. 

14.  Educative  aspeets.  The  only  educative  aspect  of  pun- 
ishment consists  in  the  association  established  in  the  pupil's 
mind  between  the  objectionable  conduct  and  some  disagree- 
able, inhibiting  idea.  If  the  association  is  close,  clear,  and 
infallible,  the  disagreeableness  spreads  to  the  idea  of  the 
conduct  and  ultimately  tends  to  inhibit  it  directly.  If,  how- 
ever, the  offense  is  sometimes  undetected  or  unpunished 
while  punishment  is  imposed  frequently  by  the  same  person 
for  various  offenses,  the  association  is  made  between  the 
disagreeableness  and  the  teacher  rather  than  with  the  offense. 
Thus  the  teacher  comes  to  be  dreaded  as  the  inevitable  evil, 
while  the  offense  is  a  sort  of  sjwrting  risk.  The  forbidden 
conduct,  according  to  the  law  of  association  of  ideas,  comes 
to  be  per  se  a  thing  to  be  desired  ;  the  penalty,  a  price  to 
be  paid  with  always  a  gambling  chance  to  avoid  payment  if 
one  is  not  caught.    Sufficient  skill  in  beating  the  game  and 


276  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

avoiding  detection  brings  the  same  temptations  it  docs  to  a 
professional  gambler. 

The  obvious  adjustment  to  this  psychological  situation  is, 
first,  if  at  times  one  be  compelled  to  resort  to  punishment, 
he  must  the  more  often  and  vixidly  impress  himself  upon 
the  child  in  pleasant  and  kindly  relations.  Do  not  let  the 
teacher  be  identified  as  a  punisher  nor  the  school  as  a  place 
of  punishment.  Second,  ])unis]nnent  must  not  be  used  as 
a  preventi\'e  unless  there  is  practical  certainty  of  its  being 
applied  every  time  the  offense  is  comrhitted.  If  the  punish- 
ment is  dependent  on  the  chance  of  detection,  it  is  a  chal- 
lenge rather  than  a  preventive.  Make  tlic  offense  and  iJic 
pwi  is  J  I  m  en  t  inscpa  Table . 

15.  Natural  punisJinient.  Unlike  other  forms,  "natural 
punishment "  is  in  itself  educative.  This  consists  in  letting 
the  child  suffer  the  penalties  imposed  by  the  laws  of  nature 
or  of  society,  letting  him  take  the  consequences  of  his  act. 
If  he  overeats  or  exposes  himself,  let  him  be  sick  and  thus 
learn  better.  If  he  climbs  too  high,  let  him  fall.  If  he  tears 
his  clothes  or  loses  his  toys,  let  him  mend  the  damage  or 
suffer  the  loss.  This  policy  has  the  enormous  advantage  of 
reasonableness.  Penalties  are  not  associated  with  the  teacher, 
and  wrongdoing  no  longer  has  the  artificial  sweetness  of 
forbidden  fruit.  Practical  lessons  of  natural  and  social  laws 
are  learned  with  a  clearness  that  no  telling  can  impart.  More 
than  all,  there  is  established  a  sense  of  one's  responsibility 
for  his  own  conduct. 

But  nature's  penalties  are  too  uncertain,  too  erratic,  and 
often  too  severe.  Her  retribution  for  j)laying  with  guns,  fire, 
and  railroad  trains  docs  not  accord  with  our  idea  of  justice. 
It  is  too  unevenly  and  too  irrcgularl\-  inllittcd.  The  punish- 
ment quite  often  precludes  the  possibility  of  reform  on  the 
part  of  the  offender.  Again,  a  large  proportion  of  nature's 
and  of  society's  penalties  are  deferred  too  long  to  remedy 


PUNISHMENT  277 

the  evil.  Many  arc  evident  only  in  old  age  or  in  "the  third 
and  fourth  generation."  Many  are  so  gradual  and  indefinite 
and  so  complicated  with  other  circumstances  of  life  that  ages 
of  human  experience  have  been  necessary  to  discover  the 
connection  of  cause  and  effect.  Wherefore  coercion  is  often 
necessary  to  supplement  natural  punishment.  If  nature  were 
really  a  good  teacher,  we  would  have  no  need  for  schools 
or  pedagog}-. 
^-^-^  If  the  natural  penalty  is  sufficiently  near  and  not  too  dan- 
gerous, it  is  very  wise  to  allow  it  to  take  its  course.  But 
the  relation  between  cause  and  effect  must  be  made  very 
plain.  The  child  is  entitled  to  full  and  fair  warning.  But 
it  is  important  to  discriminate  between  the  cJiancc  of  injury 
and  the  certainty  of  it.  To  say  "  Vou  will  be  hurt,"  when 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  warning  is  disproved  by  the 
event,  is  to  discredit  the  teacher's  veracity  and  destroy  the 
very  sense  of  responsibility  which  natural  punishment  seeks 
to  establish.  To  say  "  You  might  be  hurt,"  explaining  fully 
the  improbability  and  unexpectedness  of  the  penalty  but 
balancing  this  against  its  severity,  is  to  establish  a  profound 
respect  for  the  warning  and  for  the  policy  of  "  safety  first." 
In  school  management  natural  punishment  must  usually 
be  arlijicially  imj^osed.  Some  typical  instances  may  be  the 
following:  If  a  child  wastes  his  schooltime  in  play,  he 
must  make  up  the  school  work  in  playtime.  If  he  is  dis- 
orderly in  the  enjoyment  of  a  privilege,  he  is  deprived  of 
the  privilege.  If  he  makes  himself  objectionable  on  the 
playground,  he  is  not  allowed  there.  If  he  spoils  the  games 
by  his  quarreling  or  unfairness,  he  is  kept  out  of  them.  If 
he  does  his  work  carelessly,  it  is  not  accepted  and  must  be 
done  g^ain.  If  he  destroys  his  own  possessions,  he  must  go 
without  them.  If  he  injures  others  or  their  propertv,  he  must 
make  good  the  loss,  and  this  not  from  the  jxirental  purse  but 
by  dejM'ivation  of  something  llial  he  could  otherwise  enjoy. 


278  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Grotesque  misapplications  of  the  principle  occasionally 
occur,  as  when  a  teacher  compels  a  child  to  eat  half  a 
dozen  lunches  because  he  has  eaten  his  own  before  time, 
or  requires  him  to  chew  a  wad  of  paper  before  the  class 
because  he  has  been  caught  chewing  gum,  or  washes  out 
his  mouth  with  soap  because  he  has  used  foul  language. 
Nothing  could  well  be  more  ////natural  than  such  penalties. 

1 6.  Social  penalties,  h'inally,  as  we  have  seen  that  the 
social  motive  is  the  most  effective  for  work,  so  the  most 
effective  and  permanently  valuable  punishment  is  that  in- 
flicted by  a  group  of  one's  peers.  Puffer  and  other  students 
of  children's  groups  have  given  innumerable  instances  of 
the  complete  efficiency  of  the  penalties  inflicted  by  mem- 
bers of  a  group  upon  one  who  had  violated  some  rule  or 
standard  of  their  adoption.  It  has  been  found  that  expul- 
sions by  college  students  under  an  honor  system  of  govern- 
ment are  less  erratic  and  more  uniformly  just  than  those 
by  faculty  action.  Numerous  cases  of  punishment  imposed 
by  the  children  of  classrooms  in  the  public  schools  upon 
their  own  members  show  the  same  gratifying  results.  Pen- 
alties inflicted  by  the  children,  whatever  the  formality  or 
the  informalit)^  of  the  group  government,  are  usually  more 
just,  because  evidence  is  more  freely  obtained  and  motives 
are  much  better  understood  and  appreciated  by  the  children 
than  by  the  teacher.  They  are  more  effective,  because  the 
social  disapproval  itself  is  more  dreaded  than  any  depriva- 
tion and  often  makes  other  correction  entirely  unnecessary. 
They  are  accepted  by  the  punished  one  as  a  "  square  deal," 
because  he  realizes  that  they  are  not  arbitrary  and  do  not  arise 
from  partiality  or  temper.  They  do  not  create  friction  be- 
t'.veen  school  authorities  and  parents,  for  even  parents  recog- 
nize the  justice  of  them.  They  enable  the  teacher  to  take 
a  helpful  and  kindly  attitude  toward  the  erring  one,  often 
to  become  his  advocate  and  thus  gain  a  stronger  hold  upon 


PUNISHMENT  279 

him  and  save  him  for  the  school  and  for  society.  They 
prevent  the  social  sympathy  of  the  class  from  going  out 
to  the  child  as  against  the  teacher,  making  the  one  a  hero 
and  the  other  a  tyrant  in  their  sight.  Social  punishment 
is  natural  punishment  and  gives  an  insight  into  the  work- 
ing and  spirit  of  government.  It  accords  with  the  spirit  of 
all  the  principles  we  have  formulated.  Its  preventive  effect 
upon  the  class  is  the  best  possible,  and  the  educative  value 
in  training  the  moral  judgment  and  in  the  development 
of  an  esprit  de  corps  on  a  high  plane  cannot  be  sur- 
passed. Furthermore,  all  the  teacher's  power  and  authority 
are  held  in  reserve  for  use  in  case  the  class  conduct 
should  go  astray,  gaining  in  dignity  through  its  unused  and 
unknown  possibilities. 

.  As  expressed  by  a  writer  in  the  Outlook:  "Appar- 
ently the  philosophy  of  the  thing  is  this  :  When  punished 
by  your  teacher  you  are  a  martyr  in  the  eyes  of  your  fel- 
lows. When  punished  by  your  fellows  you  are  a  disgrace 
to  their  community." 

PROBLEMS 

1.  It  is  a  traditional  sort  of  statement  among  men  that  they 
were  frequently  thrashed  during  their  schooldays  and  that  they 
"  never  got  a  lick  amiss."  Gather  from  them  and  others  precise 
accounts  of  these  cases  of  punishment  and  determine  as  well  as 
possible  the  effect  of  the  whipping  on  ((7)  the  work,  (/')  conduct, 
(c)  permanent  attitudes  toward  school  and  teacher.  Do  the  facts 
seem  to  bear  out  the  statements  ?  How  far  does  the  general  tend- 
ency to  look  back  with  pleasure  upon  all  the  hardships  of  boyhood 
contribute  to  the  opinion  referred  to  .^ 

2.  Investigate  carefully  several  recent  cases  of  corporal  punish- 
ment, particularly  studying  the  effects  upon  the  child's  attitude 
toward  the  teacher  and  the  school  work. 

3.  What  are  the  rules  and  regulations  in  force  in  your  school 
regarding  punishment  ? 


28o  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

4.  Consider  any  case  of  misbehavior  and   punishment   whidi 
•  has  come  to  your  attention  and  (d)  propose  better  forms  of  pun- 
ishment, (/')  other  treatment  which  you  regard  as  better  for  this 
case  than  punishment. 

5.  Consider  the  same  treatment  as  having  been  inflicted  upon 
several  different  children,  selecting  those  var)ing  as  much  as 
possible  in   temperament,   age,   and   home   surroundings. 

6.  Study  any  available  cases  of  corporal  punishment  from  the 
viewpoint  of  this  chapter  in  regard  to  their  brutalizing  effect  or 
their  use  as  a  last  resort. 

7.  For  each  of  the  cases  of  ])unishment  you  have  recorded 
above  propose  some  form  of  "  natural  punishment "  if  possible. 

READmOS 

Arnold.    School  and  Class  Management,  chaps,  x-xii. 
Bain.    Education  as  a  Science,  pp.  100-120. 
Bagley.    Classroom  Management,  chap.  viii. 
Baglev.    School  Discipline,  chaps,  x-xiv. 
CoE.    Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  chap.  ix. 
Compavr6.    Lectures  on  Pedagogy,  pp.  463-476. 
Griggs.    Moral  Educadon,  chaps,  xv,  xvi. 
Morehouse.    The  Discipline  of  the  School,  chap.  x. 
O'Shea.    Social  Development  and  Education,  chap.  x\ 
Puffer.    The  Boy  and  his  dang,  chaps,  xi-xiii. 
Salishurv.    School  Management,  chap.  xiv. 
Seeley.    a  New  School  Management,  cliap.  viii. 
Spencer.    Education,  chap.  iii. 

Weimar.    The  Way  to  the  Ik-art  of  the  Child,  chap.  vi. 
W^HITE.    School  Management,  pp.  190-217. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
CONSTRUCTIVE  GOVERNMENT 

What  is  order?  We  have  heard  that  "order  is  heaven's 
first  law,"  but  if  on/cr  means  unnatural  silence,  straight 
lines,  rigid  positions,  and  formality,  there  is  little  that  is 
heavenly  about  the  places  where  it  prevails.  It  is  neither 
heavenly  nor  natural.  The  elaborate,  laborious  silence,  the 
suppression  of  natural  activity,  known  as  "order"  in  many 
schoolrooms,  defies  every  precedent  and  violates  every  law 
found  in  the  order  of  nature.  I  The  one  criterion  of  order- 
liness in  school  is  conduciveness  to  educative  activity./  Not 
the  sound  of  the  "pin-drop"  but  the  sound  of  happy  in- 
dustry is  the  test  of  good  school  order  —  not  tense  restraint 
but  intense  activity.  The  noise  of  children  happy  and  busy 
is  not  disorder  unless  it  prevents  others  from  being  happy 
and  busy.  The  methods  of  orderly  government  consist  not 
in  repressing  activity  so  much  as  in  stimulating  it ;  not  in 
continually  stopping  something  but  in  "  starting  something," 
not  in  correcting  but  in  directing;  not  in  pupil  suppression 
but  in  pupil  expression. 

Transition  of  government  to  social  control.  The  govern- 
ments of  society,  political  and  pedagogical  alike,  have  passed 
from  the  merely  negative  level  to  the  positive  ;  from  pre- 
venting mutual  destruction  to  fostering  mutual  progress. 
The  assumption  of  the  old  regime  was  that  subjects  or  chil- 
dren had  neither  the  intelligence  nor  the  community  of  sym- 
pathy to  govern  themsehes.  The  new  type  of  government 
assumes  that  they  never  will,  except  through  the  exercise 
of  such  intelligence  and  sympathy  as  they  do  have.    School 

281 


282  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

monarchs,  like  political  ones,  erred  in  overestimating  their 
own  fitness  to  rule  and  in  underestimating  the  social  capac- 
ity of  their  subjects  for  self-rule.  We  entered  the  World 
War  to  establish  the  rights  of  people  to  rule  themselves ; 
because  "'  The  world  must  be  made  safe  for  democracy." 
The  safety  of  democracy  involves  the  development  of  people 
in  self-rule  no  less  than  the  overthrow  of  the  self-seeking 
tyrannies.  The  latter  is  a  task  for  armies  ;  the  former  is 
one  for  schools.  The  wiser  teachers  become,  the  less  dog- 
matic and  cocksure  are  they  about  their  own  methods  and 
policies  and  the  more  respect  they  have  for  child  initiative 
and  social  sympathy.  Modern  study  of  children  has  disclosed 
undreamed-of  resources  for  wise  self-direction  and  has  given 
a  new  conception  of  the  pedagogical  divine  right  to  rule. 

Government  must  vary  with  the  governed.  It  is  the 
nature  of  very  young  children  to  accept  parental  guidance 
without  question.  Their  capacity  for  self-direction  is  con- 
sumed in  managing  their  simple  muscular  coordinations. 
The  problem  in  governing  them  is  how  to  mother  them 
wisely.  The  blunder  of  the  schools  has  always  been  inertia. 
They  have  sought  to  keep  the  children  infants  when  in  the 
course  of  nature  they  became  otherwise. 

European  universities,  originally  voluntary  assemblies  of 
adult  knowledge-seekers,  have  clung  zealously  to  their  demo- 
cratic administration.  The  older  American  colleges,  how^ever, 
have  grown  up  rather  from  schools  of  boys  and  therefore 
have  had  to  adopt  some  form  of  student  government  to 
get  it.  The  principle  was  first  ingrafted  at  the  old  College 
of  William  and  Mary  as  the  "  honor  system  "  in  1779.  Dur- 
ing the  past  century  various  types  of  honor  systems  or  plans 
of  student  government  have  extended  to  American  higher 
institutions.  Many  of  these  assume  responsibility  only  for 
honesty  in  examinations,  others  extend  their  oversight  to 
hazing  and  thieving  and,  in  some  cases,  to  practically  the 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GOVERNMENT  283 

whole  of  the  student's  Hfe.  American  high  schools  have 
tended  to  mimic  our  colleges  in  many  things,  and  elementary 
schools  too  often  mimic  the  high  schools.  Thus  the  toga 
virilis  of  American  school  government,  the  honor  system, 
has  been  /;//  oit  by  many  schools  that  would  be  better  fitted 
with  administrative  kilts. 

Success  of  the  democratic  spirit  in  school.  Still  this 
democratic  tendency  has  resulted  in  better  standards  of 
order,  even  in  more  rigid  standards  of  silence  and  restraint, 
for  it  has  been  self-restraint.  By  enlisting  the  cooperation 
instead  of  the  opposition  of  the  child's  social  impulses, 
it  has  been  an  easier,  a  more  economical  means  of  attain- 
ing favorable  working  conditions.  The  evils  of  it  are  due 
to  installing  a  form,  the  benefits  to  developing  a  spirit.  It 
is  the  same  old  story,  the  inevitable,  recurrent  story  of 
politics,  of  art,  of  literature,  of  religion,  of  thought,  —  the 
form  without  the  spirit  is  void. 

School  cities.  Few  schools  probably  exhibit  higher  stand- 
ards of  quiet,  busy  orderliness  than  some  of  those  in  which 
"school  cities"  exist.  Their  standards  of  conduct  are  fixed 
in  pupil  legislative  assemblies,  while  pupil  courts,  pupil 
inspectors,  pupil  policemen,  and  pupil  truant  oflficers  en- 
force their  laws  and  administer  discipline.  The  teacher 
retains,  in  varying  degrees,  an  advisory  relation  and  usually 
the  right  of  veto,  but  is  often  lilllc  more  tlian  an  onlooker, 
the  royal  figurehead  of  a  limited  monarchy.  In  these 
school  democracies,  also,  history  has  repeated  itself  with  an 
interesting  faithfulness.  Some  of  them  have  succeeded 
magnificently  and  are  enthusiastically  heralded  as  the  solu- 
tion of  all  the  ills  of  government.  Some  have  failed  utterly 
because  they  were  too  suddenly  "adopted"  for  an  unpre- 
pared citizenry.  Others  have  worked  well  so  long  as  the 
original  founder  dominated,  showing  that  however  demo- 
cratic in  form  they  were  dictatorships  in  fact.    Still  others, 


284  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

through  unwise  meddhng  of  the  abdicating  monarchs,  unwill- 
ing to  let  difficulties  evolve  their  own  solution,  have  brought 
the  whole  of  self-government  into  contempt  as  a  meaning- 
less mockery.  And,  true  still  to  historical  precedent,  critics 
of  these  school  democracies  have  been  prone  to  exaggerate 
their  newly  developed  evils  and  to  forget  the  greater  faults 
of  the  old  monarchies,  —  faults  to  w'hich  the  critics  were 
so  inured  as  perhaps  never  to  have  seen  them  at  all. 

No  teacher  of  children  can  afford  to  be  ignorant  of  the 
working  and  spirit  of  the  elaborate  "'  school  cities."  Whether 
or  not  they  may  be  desirable  for  general  adoption  or  for 
any  particular  community,  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  they 
show  the  limitless  possibilities  of  children  for  self-government. 
Merely  as  a  dramatization  of  the  fundamental  lessons  of 
civics  they  are  a  genuinely  important  contribution  to  modern 
education.  The  aim  of  this  volume,  however,  demands  that 
we  limit  our  further  discussion  to  a  less  radical  type  of 
school  government. 

Liberty  grows  with  capacity  for  it.  The  public  school 
is  ideally  situated  for  developing  the  capacity  for  and  the 
forms  of  self-government  pa7-i  pass?i.  Starting  with  the 
physical  helplessness  and  natural  docility  of  the  primary 
child,  each  privilege  and  responsibility  should  be  assumed 
by  him  just  so  far  as  he  will  use  it  wisely.  Me  is  free  to  do 
whatever  contributes  to  his  work  or  comfort  jjrovidcd  it  does 
not  interfere  with  the  work  or  comfort  of  any  other.  Restric- 
tions should  be  imposed  on  no  other  ground  than  this  and 
should  be  as  few  as  possible.  One  gets  his  drink  or  speaks 
or  leaves  the  room  on  precisely  the  same  terms  that  he 
should  elsewhere,  —  that  it  interferes  with  no  duty,  that  it 
interferes  with  no  one  else,  that  it  is  done  as  a  lady  or  gen- 
tleman should  do  it.  Children  must  learn  throi^gh  observa- 
tion and  trial  just  what  it  is  that  does  annoy  others  and  just 
what  does  interfere  with  work. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GOVERNMENT  285 

Results  of  unnecessary  restrictions.  To  require  special 
permission  for  leaving  the  room,  getting  a  drink,  speaking 
to  a  neighbor,  passing  a  book,  or  other  natural  and  common 
acts  accomplishes  several  undesirable  results.  The  very  re- 
striction gives  such  things  an  unnatural  desirability  and  mul- 
tiplies the  frequency  of  the  requests.  The  frequent  requests, 
whether  by  snapping  of  fingers  or  less  objectionable  means, 
cause  more  distraction  of  both  teacher  and  class  than  would 
result  from  acting  without  permission.  There  is  more  or 
less  of  immodesty,  which  all  are  forced  to  hear  and  to  prac- 
tice, that  is  quite  opposed  to  refined  training.  All  training 
in  discretion,  all  development  of  self-government  in  the 
matters  involved  is  forestalled.  How  can  children  be  ex- 
pected to  do  as  ladies  and  gentlemen  should  do  unless  they 
are  given  the  chance  to  do  as  ladies  and  gentlemen  do .? 

Values  of  self -direction.  Certain  restrictions  mav  be 
found  necessary  and  desirable,  such  as  that  no  two  shall 
leave  their  seats  at  the  same  time,  that  none  shall  remain 
out  more  than  a  specified  number  of  minutes,  that  there 
shall  be  no  leaving  within  so  many  minutes  of  a  recess.  It 
is  far  better  that  children  themselves  should  apply  these 
restrictions  than  for  the  teacher  to  be  burdened  with  them, 
and  experience  shows  that  the  children.- with  a  little  guid- 
ance, will  execute  reasonable  restrictions  more  effectively 
than  a  teacher  can.  When  one  is  teaching  he  cannot  be 
thinking  of  all  these  details  for  thirty  children  at  once. 
When  doing  the  latter  he  cannot  be  teaching.  Granting 
permission  relieves  the  child  from  any  responsibility  for  the 
wisdom  of  it.  Refusal  engenders  resentment  and  a  feeling 
of  injustice  regardless  of  reasons. 

As  already  indicated,  prescribed  rules  and  regulations  tend 
by  psychological  suggestion  to  make  the  proscribed  conduct 
attractive.  A  case  in  point  is  the  classic  instance  of  the 
new  master  who  promulgated  a  rule  against  sliding  down  the 


286  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

woodshed  roof.  This  amusement  liad  not  before  occurred 
to  the  boys,  but  by  the  next  morning  it  was  their  favorite 
occupation.  I'urthcrmore,  imposed  rules  prevent  any  exer- 
cise of  the  pupil's  judgment  as  to  the  right  and  wrong  of 
his  conduct.  However  desirable  the  conduct  obtained  by  en- 
forced regulation,  it  has  a  minimum  of  moral  and  educative 
value.  Children  must  have  the  opportunity  to  decide  for 
themselves,  and  the  chance  to  decide  wrong,  if  they  are  to 
learn  to  decide  right. 

Initiating  social  rule.  But  the  making  of  rules  and  regu- 
lations, and  the  faithful  carrying  out  by  pupils  of  those 
made,  has  the  highest  educative  and  moral  value.  So  long 
as  their  conduct  remains  unobjectionable,  nothing  could  be 
more  absurd  than  to  have  rules  restricting  it.  Whenever 
there  arises  a  sufficient  reason  for  restriction,  the  children 
will  appreciate  it.  Then  they  should  discuss  freely  and 
frankly  the  restraints  that  should  be  imposed.  Wide  expe- 
rience has  shown  that  they  will  almost  invariably  impose 
more  severe  restrictions  upon  themselves  than  a  wise  teacher 
would.  If  whispering  has  become  objectionable,  almost  any 
grade  will  promptly  vote  to  prohibit  whispering  utterly  under 
penalty  of  a  whipping  or  protracted  "  keeping-in."  They  are 
only  too  impetuous  in  making  such  rules.  Then  the  teacher's 
broader  vision  is  needed  to  show  them  what  these  rules  will 
mean  when  enforced  month  after  month.  At  the  first,  chil- 
dren will  impose  and  submit  to  their  own  penalties  with 
enthusiasm,  but  when  the  new  wears  off,  the  constant  watch- 
fulness and  encouragement  of  the  teacher  is  essential  to 
keep  up  pressure  until  the  conduct  they  have  sought  to 
establish  has  become  habitual. 

Self-made  restrictions — few  but  infallible.  Only  as  real 
need  arises  should  children  be  encouraged  to  make  rules  for 
their  own  regulation.  Ikit  once  adopted,  with  full  knowledge 
and  free  volition,  enforcement  should  be  infallible.   To  attain 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GOVERNMENT  287 

this  ideal,  rules  should  be  made  only  after  mature  thought 
and  discussion,  only  one  or  very  few  at  a  time,  and  with 
ample  provision  for  their  systematic  enforcement.  The 
teacher  should  warn  pupils  against,  rather  than  urge  them 
to,  radical  action. 

Normally,  restrictive  rules  should  pertain  only  to  such  con- 
duct as  is  innocent  in  itself  but  becomes  objectionable  owing 
to  school  conditions.  That  conduct  which  is  wrong  anywhere 
must,  oi  course,  be  prevented,  but  it  should  not  be  suggested 
by  specific  regulation  in  advance.  The  assumption  should  be 
respected  that  children  in  a  school  society  are  amenable  to 
and  expect  to  obey  political  and  moral  laws  and  the  rules 
of  propriety  without  special  legislation. 

Restrictions  imposed  by  authority.  Certain  official  regu- 
lations, concerned  mainly  with  routine  procedure,  are  neces- 
sary to  expedite  the  business  of  a  large  school  or  system. 
The  reason  for  and  value  of  these  may  well  be  made  clear  to 
the  children  who  are  expected  to  observe  them.  There  is  no 
good  reason  why  they  should  not  appreciate  the  significance 
of  such  regulations,  and  many  reasons  why  they  should. 
But  the  mere  fact  that  the  properly  constituted  authorities 
have  provided  them  for  the  benefit  of  the  schools  is  reason 
enough  for  unhesitating  obedience.  Individuals  cannot  ex- 
pect to  judge  the  wisdom  of  all  laws  made  for  their  guidance, 
but  by  participating  in  the  making  of  some  and  understand- 
ing fully  the  value  of  many  others,  a  child  can  readily  believe 
that  there  is  a  rationality  and  not  a  mere  arbitrary  tyranny 
in  those  rules  which  he  does  not  understand.  Thus  he  grows 
up  in  the  law-respecting  attitude  of  a  good  citizen. 

Rules  for  the  teacher's  protection.  Systems  of  regulations, 
as  of  penalties,  marks,  and  promotions,  are  often  adopted  for 
the  express  purpose  of  protecting  teachers  and  oflicials  from 
the  necessity  of  decision  or  from  charges  of  partiality.  The 
wrathy  parent  is  ever  looming  on  the  weak  teacher's  horizon. 


288  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Such  organization  mechanizes  the  whole  hfe  of  the  school. 
Pupil  morality  becomes  literal,  pharisaical,  and  artificial. 
Teachers  hide  behind  the  letter  of  the  law  to  establish  in- 
justice as  well  as  justice.  Officials  fear  to  be  conscientious, 
sympathetic  educators  and  become  mere  impersonal  judges 
of  the  technical  type.  Modern  juvenile  courts  are  primarily 
sympathetic,  informal,  and  free  from  technical  and  literal 
restrictions.  Why  should  schools  retain  the  archaic  policies 
which  political  government  has  rejected  as  a  failure .''  Be- 
sides, school  government  by  impersonal  statute  does  not 
secure  the  support  and  confidence  of  parents.  The  teacher 
who  keeps  in  touch  with  parents,  advises  with  them,  takes 
them  into  his  confidence,  and  then  uses  his  own  best  judg- 
ment rather  than  hard  and  fast  rules,  is  the  teacher  who 
has  the  confidence  and  cooperation  of  parents. 

Enforcement  of  laws  by  pupils.  As  legislation  by  the  chil- 
dren secures  laws  better  adapted  to  their  needs,  more  easily 
enforced,  and  better  appreciated,  and  trains  the  children  in 
ethical  judgment,  self-direction,  and  good  citizenship  ;  so  ex- 
ecution of  these  laws  by  the  pupils  is  more  thorough,  more 
just,  accomplished  with  less  friction,  insures  sympathetic 
cooperation,  and  trains  the  child  to  aj^preciate  the  position 
of  public  officials  and  the  significance  of  their  work  and  to 
cooperate  in  the  responsibility  of  citizens. 

Selection  of  monitors.  Just  as  it  is  best  to  adopt  laws 
only  as  they  become  needed,  so  officials  should  be  selected 
for  their  enforcement  in  the  school  society  only  so  far  as 
necessary  to  secure  cfruient  goxei'miu'iit.  I'^unctionless  offi- 
cials bring  government  into  disrepute  c|uite  as  much  as  im- 
enforced  laws.  As  each  law  is  jxissed,  monitors  may  be 
selected  whose  special  duty  is  to  enforce  it.  These  monitors 
may  well  be  pupils  who  themselves  are  in  danger  of  violating 
the  new  law,  but  they  certainly  must  be  those  in  sympathy 
with  it.    If  it  is  desirable  for  a  class  to  enforce  a  law  which 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GOVERNMENT  289 

they  need,  it  is  particularly  desirable  for  an  individual  to  have 
the  enforcing  of  a  law  which  he  needs.  Obviously,  care  must 
be  taken  to  have  monitors  who  are  strong  enough  to  en- 
force the  law  upon  themselves  as  well  as  upon  others,  or  to 
team  them  in  such  combinations  that  efficiency  will  surely 
be  attained.  Short  terms  in  office  secure  a  succession  of 
"new  brooms"  and  renewed  assurances  of  faithfulness.  The 
actual  selection  of  the  monitors  affords  the  highest  oppor- 
tunity for  the  exercise  of  social  judgment  by  the  pupils. 
Here,  particularly,  the  teacher  should  be  always  ready  with 
warning  questions  and  suggestions,  yet  without  intruding  so 
as  to  rob  the  children  of  their  sense  of  responsibility. 

Installation.  Every  appointment  should  terminate  promptly 
in  case  of  inefficiency  or  neglect  of  duty.  The  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities should  be  clearly  determined  and  made  very 
plain,  with  the  assistance  of  the  teacher,  before  monitors 
are  selected.  If  the  duties  are  likely  to  be  difficult  or  to 
require  much  persistence,  in  which  quality  children  are  nota- 
bly w^eak,  the  induction  into  office  should  be  made  formal 
and  impressive.  Frequent  conferences  of  the  monitors  with 
each  other  and  with  the  teacher  help  to  keep  up  interest 
and  faithfulness. 

Need  of  infallible  persistency.  It  is  when  the  first  enthu- 
siasm has  passed  but  tlie  end  is  not  \et  fully  attained  that 
the  teacher's  support  and  persistent  watchfulness  is  most 
needed.  When  the  children  are  beginning  to  forget,  the 
teacher  must  be  sure  to  remember.  And  teachers  are  but 
little  belter  than  the  ehiklren  in  this  tendenev  to  become 
slack  after  the  new  has  worn  off.  The  "  Progress  l^ook  " 
should  here  sei^v-e  as  a  valuable  reminder.  There  should  be 
readily  accessible  a  full  record  of  ever\-  law  that  is  passed, 
with  the  names  of  monitors  whose  duty  it  is  to  enforce  it ; 
a  record  of  all  meetings  and  plans  for  enforcement.  Such 
record  may  well  be  kept  by  the  children,  if  by  their  own 


290  SCHOOL  J':FFIC1ENCY 

initiative,  but  it  must  be  available  where  it  will  prevent  the 
teacher's  forgetting.  No  routine,  no  drudgery  of  marking 
papers,  no  worries  or  special  cases  of  discipline  must  pre- 
vent the  teacher  from  seeing  to  it  that  once  a  rule  has  breji 
adopted  by  tlie  child  re  >i  it  is  never  neglected  luitil  its  pur- 
pose has  been  aeconiplislied  or  it  has  been  formally  repealed. 
Laws  tacitly  ignored  make  for  bad  citizenship.  In  school, 
where  training  for  citizenship  is  the  jjrinie  ])urposc,  laws  are 
quickly  made  and  unmade,  and  there  can  be  no  excuse  for 
dead-letter  laws. 

Social  control  of  punctuality  and  attendance.  The  problem 
of  promptness  and  regularity  of  attendance  has  been  most 
successfully  handled  by  a  simple  social  device.  A  banner  is 
awarded  monthly  to  the  class  making  the  best  record  in  these 
respects.  In  each  room  two  "  class  captains  "  are  elected  by 
the  pupils  to  keep  the  records  under  the  supervision  of  the 
teacher  and  to  enforce  regularity.  These  captains  bring  a 
powerful  social  pressure  to  bear  directly  upon  each  child  who 
tends  to  bring  down  the  class  standard.  They  investigate  ex- 
cuses, call  upon  parents,  and  plead  most  successfully  for  .the 
removal  of  any  home  hindrances  to  perfect  attendance.  They 
personally  see  to  it  that  tardiness  is  not  caused  by  loitering 
along  the  way.  They  do  all  with  a  thoroughness  and  fair- 
ness which  the  busy  teacher  cannot  approximate.  They  also 
take  command  of  the  marching  in  and  out  of  the  lines  — 
with  the  coveted  banner  at  the  head  of  the  proud  winners. 

Good  citizenship  in  school  elections.  As  to  the  mode  of 
selecting  monitors,  man\-  methods  will  be  devised  by  the 
children,  but  fitness  for  the  ollice  should  be  the  sine  qua  non. 
In  bestowing  a  public  office  there  must  be  no  political  pull, 
partiality  of  the  powers  that  be,  or  rewarding  of  a  popular 
favorite.  This  lesson  cannot  be  learned  too  early,  and  it  is 
just  as  important  for  efficient  government  in  school  as  in 
the  state. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GOVERNMENT  291 

Caution.  The  necessity  for  thoroughness  and  infalhble 
persistency  emphasizes  the  necessity  for  few  laws  and  simple 
government.  The  government  should  groiv  rather  than  be 
ms  tall  id.  The  more  elaborate  school  city  may  be  effective 
and  may  be  a  charming  lesson  in  civics,  but  stability  of  gov- 
ernment and  dcvclopuioit  of  self-control  warn  us  to  go  slow. 
A  genius  in  organization  will  occasionally  make  a  complex 
form  of  government  a  thorough  success,  but  a  mere  imitator 
is  more  likely  to  make  it  a  fad  for  a  short  while  and  after 
that  a  joke.  Woe  unto  that  school  whose  go\'ernment  has 
become  a  joke  to  its  pupils ! 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Observe  carefully  several  classrooms  and  make  a  written 
analysis  of  the  characteristics  which  seem  to  make  for  order  in 
each.    Does  silence  seem  to  be  indispensable  to  favorable  work  ? 

2.  Among  the  self-government  schemes  in  actual  operation, 
which  seem  to  be  "  top-heavy "  ?  \\'hich  seem  to  be  regarded 
rather  as  fads  than  as  practical  solutions  of  daily  problems  ?  To 
what  extent  do  any  of  them  fail  to  command  respect  ? 

3.  Just  what  transitions  in  self-government  should  be  made, 
grade  by  grade,  from  the  kindergarten  to  college  ? 

4.  Draw  up  a  set  of  regulations  such  as  you  think  some  given 
grade  should  adopt  for  itself.  Tell  how  }ou  would  go  about  get- 
ting such  regulations  adopted. 

5.  Examine  any  set  of  official  regulations  and  indicate  which  of 
them  are  apparently  intended  to  protect  teachers  from  criticism 
and  relieve  them  from  the  responsibility  of  making  judgments. 

6.  Write  a  summary  of  all  the  means  you  can  learn  of  for 
securing  promptness  and  regularity  of  attendance.  Which  of  these 
seems  to  have  the  greatest  permanent  educative  value  ?    ^^'hy  ? 

READINGS 
See  next  cliaptcr. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
CORRECTIVE  (GOVERNMENT 

Constructive  versus  corrective  government.  In  the  last 
chapter  our  discussion  assumed  a  normal  situation,  just  such 
a  situation  as  prevails  in  well-managed  schools  everywhere  and 
will  prevail  where  bad  management  does  not  make  it  other- 
wise. In  such  schools  government  is  constructive  and  edu- 
cative, and  serious  problems  of  corrective  discipline  seldom 
or  never  arise.  But  there  are  schools  where  bad  traditions, 
bad  habits,  and  false  ideals  have  grown  up  through  misman- 
agement, and  to  any  school  there  may  come  pupils  whose 
conduct  is  evilly  affected  by  influences  beyond  the  pale  of 
school  control.  Because  of  the  disorderly  pupil  and  the  dis- 
orderly school  a  further  discussion  of  the  principles  and 
methods  of  government  is  advisable. 

Simple  deprivation.  In  tliose  commonplace  matters  in 
which  the  pupil  has  individual  liberty  to  conduct  himself 
'"  as  ladies  and  gentlemen  do  "  the  logical  treatment  of  one 
who  abuses  any  privilege  is  merely  to  de])rive  him  of  that 
privilege.  This  is  "  natural  punishment  "  and  educative  in 
the  best  sense,  provided  it  is  not  made  unnaturally  severe 
or  lenient.  The  pupil  should  be  conscious  that  the  teacher 
is  a  sympathetic  friend,  compelled  much  to  his  own  regret 
to  impose  the  restriction  for  the  protection  of  the  .school  and 
its  standards  of  conduct.  He  sliould  know  that  his  teacher 
is  genuinely  h;ippy  when  there  can  be  a  renewal  of  complete 
trust  and  restoration  of  all  privileges.  After  a  pupil  has 
been  restored  to  full  privileges  —  especially  one  of  those 
irrepressible   pupils   who   finds   it   so   hard   to  walk    in   the 

392 


CORRECTIVE  GOVERNMENT  293 

narrow  way  —  the  teacher  should  actively  help  him  to  retain 
his  good  standing.  Some  secret  word  or  sign  of  warning, 
the  holding  up  of  a  'finger,  always  pleasantly  and  "just 
between  us  two,"  helps  to  keep  up  a  bond  of  sympathy  and 
is  a  practical  form  of  cooperation.  Such  signs  need  not  be 
thought  too  childish.  They  are  very  effective  among  boys 
and  girls,  and  the  great  secret  orders  of  men  perpetuate 
them  with  tremendous  solemnity. 

A  pupil  whose  abuse  of  liberty  has  necessitated  that  he 
get  special  permission  to  speak  to  another,  to  get  a  drink, 
to  leave  the  room,  etc.  should  not  be  allowed  to  disturb  the 
class  in  getting  that  permission.  He  should  not  be  allowed 
to  ask  permission  except  when  the  teacher  is  not  engaged  in 
a  recitation  or  as  may  be  otherwise  most  convenient.  He 
should  know  in  advance  that  permission  will  be  granted 
only  rarely  and  when  clearly  necessary.  He  ma\-  be  required 
to  write  his  requests  and  submit  them  silentlw  The  depri- 
vation should  be  ver)'  real  and  not  hastih'  removed,  but 
the  spirit  of  the  teacher  toward  him  should  be  sympathetic 
and  helpful  alwavs. 

Innocent  wrongdoing.  Aside  from  the  abuse  of  liberties 
there  is  conduct  which  is  bad  in  itself,  which  would  be  bad 
anywhere.  If  this  is  done  innocently  the  remedy,  of  course, 
is  helpful  instruction  and  sympathetic  guidance.  "  Igno- 
rance of  the  law  "  is  the  best  possible  excuse  for  the  pupil, 
whatever  it  may  be  for  the  criminal.  But  the  pupil's  igno- 
rance is  the  teacher's  responsibility  and  is  quickly  remedied. 
It  must  not  be  pleaded  a  second  time  for  the  same  offense. 

School  justice  never  blind.  Conscious  violation  of  the  law 
is  an  entircl)-  different  matter.  Hut  here,  again,  the  teacher 
must  rise  above  the  ideals  of  the  criminal  court  and  consider 
motives  rather  than  the  overt  act  or  technical  law.  Justice 
to  children  is  never  blind.  Blindness  to  their  impelling 
motives   is   never  just.    There   must   be   no   haggling  over 


294  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

legal  technicalities,  quibbling  as  to  the  precise  connotation 
of  a  written  statute.  First  of  all,  let  the  child  feel  that  the 
teacher  is  his  friend  and  advocate  rather  than  his  judge. 
The  penalty  imposed  is  only  to  help  him  remember  and  to 
keep  him  out  of  such  trouble  another  time,  to  help  him 
to  learn  an  important  lesson  before  his  ignorance  becomes 
more  serious,  and  to  protect  the  school  from  his  misdoings 
until  he  can  learn  to  do  as  others  do.  'I'he  vital  step  is  to 
arouse  right  motives,  to  make  the  child  anxious  to  do  right, 
desirous  to  be  helped  to  self-control.  If  Ben  Lindsey  and 
other  judges  of  juvenile  courts  can  deal  thus  with  the 
toughest  outcasts  of  the  slums  on  the  short  aquaintance  of 
the  courtroom,  surely  no  teacher  in  close  touch  with  the 
normal  children  of  the  school  will  dare  to  say  "  Impos- 
sible "  !  There  is  no  normal  child  in  our  schools  so  hard 
and  abandoned  that  a  truly  sympathetic  teacher  cannot  reach 
his  heart  and  his  motives  and  deal  with  them  directly. 

Manipulating  motives  and  diagnosing  conduct.  In  dealing 
with  the  errant  motives  involved  in  misconduct  two  objects 
are  in  view  :  first,  to  prevent  the  motive  from  finding  any 
satisfaction  in  the  misconduct ;  and  second,  to  redirect  it  into 
right  conduct  in  which  it  will  find  satisfaction.  For  example, 
if  a  boy  disturbs  a  room  in  order  to  show  off  before  the 
class,  the  punishment  must  bring  him  their  contempt  or 
derision  and  must  not  permit  him  to  pose  as  a  hero  or 
martyr.  What  one  d(;es  "just  to  annoy  the  teacher"  must 
never  succeed  in  its  purpose.  He  who  tries  too  hard  to 
appear  "smart"  must  be  made  to  appear  foolish.  'i"he 
combative  youth  must  have  no  chance  to  get  into  a  physical 
conflict  with  the  teacher,  unless  it  be  of  the  sort  that  will 
effectually  convert  his  pugnacity  into  respectful  admiration. 
The  cheat  must  submit  to  frequent  additional  and  more 
searching  tests.  The  liar  must  lie  in  vain  and  thenceforth 
prove  his  statements  to  have  them  accepted.   The  thief  must 


CORRECTIVE  GOVERNMENT  295 

pay  high  for  his  ill-gotten  gains,  and  his  access  to  the 
property  of  others  must  be  well  guarded  thereafter. 

Dishonesty  a  symptom,  not  a  motive.  Dishonesty  is  not 
a  motive,  it  is  a  symptom  of  motives  lacking  natural  means 
of  exercise.  Cheating,  lying,  and  stealing  are  the  results  of 
stimulating  perfectly  good  and  normal  impulses  beyond  the 
means  of  satisfying  them.  One  cheats  in  examination  be- 
cause of  the  very  impulses  of  rivalry,  desire  for  approval 
and  for  promotion,  which  the  examining  and  promoting 
schemes  were  intended  to  stimulate.  Either  less  stimula- 
tion or  better  preparation  would  remove  the  temptation  to 
cheat.  One  lies  to  avoid  impending  punishment,  to  obtain 
some  undeserved  reward  or  other  advantage,  or  for  the 
sake  of  the  admiration  elicited  by  his  yarns.  If  penalties  and 
rewards  were  never  unjustly  given  or  promised,  if  abundant 
opportunities  were  afforded  for  the  harmless  play  of  the 
imagination,  for  the  love  of  expression,  and  for  the  dramatic 
instinct  school  lies  would  be  rare  indeed.  One  steals  for 
the  same  reason  that  the  starving  waif  takes  the  loaf  of 
bread,  or  the  speculator  waters  railroad  stock,  —  because 
his  genuine  needs  or  his  degenerate  desires  are  greater 
than  his  actual  resources.  If  just  needs  are  provided  for 
and  right  thinking  corrects  abnormal  desires,  why  should 
there  be  stealing }  Behind  the  dishonesty  we  must  find  the 
too  heavy  pressure  and  relieve  it.  We  must  locate  the  too 
feeble  resources  and  strengthen  them.  Meanwhile  the  dis- 
honest act  must  be  made  to  prove  futile. 

Fighting.  Fighting  may  be  an  expression  of  cowardly 
bull)  ing ;  it  may  be  a  desperate  self-defense ;  it  may  be 
chivalrous  protection  of  the  weak  ;  it  may  be  mere  weak 
imitation  under  the  intentional  suggestion  of  older  boys, 
a  sort  of  mob  spirit  wickedl}'  unloosed  by  others.  Ahmifcstly 
the  treatment  of  these  different  cases  must  be  totally  differ- 
ent, and  that,  too,  regardless  of  who  was  the  actual  physical 


296  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

aggressor.  Sometimes  the  fight  itself  disposes  of  the  pun- 
ishment and  of  tlie  victory  where  they  are  most  needed  and 
in  proper  proportions.  Often  the  results  are  wholly  unjust, 
for  might  is  not  right.  One  may  deser\-e  commendation, 
another  humiliation,  but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  com- 
bativeness  is  ever  remedied  by  further  physical  combat  with 
the  teacher,  or  bullying  remedied  by  the  teacher's  whipping 
a  fellow  smaller  than  himself. 

Profanity.  I'^oul  language  and  profanity  in  boys,  and 
probablv  all  manner  of  sheer  vileness,  are  due  to  misguided 
virility.  Hoys  want  to  appear  manly,  big,  dominant,  and 
virile.  Their  highest  ambition  is  to  realize  essential  manli- 
ness. On  the  street  corner  they  see  the  strong,  vital  ones, 
the  doers,  the  heroic,  daring  fellows  who  have  seen  the 
world  and  conquered  it  —  according  to  their  own  testimony. 
In  the  pulpit  and  schoolroom  they  see  the  effeminate, 
proper,  prosaic,  humdrum  individuals  who  never  committed 
an  impropriety  —  judging  by  their  righteous  pose.  A  boy 
whose  limited  experience  prevents  his  seeing  below  the 
surface  of  things,  whose  impulses  incline  to  the  concrete 
heroism  of  a  bandit  rather  than  to  the  sublimated  courage 
of  a  Lincoln  or  a  Lee,  who  sees  action  rather  than  ab- 
straction, may  be  expected  to  admire  the  braggart  of  the 
corner  saloon  who  has  trod  all  the  paths  that  are  dark  and 
devious  rather  than  the  prosy  j3r(^fessor  who  is  shocked  by 
a  vigorous  expletive. 

Vice  versus  virility.  The  remedy  for  these  worst  of  school 
evils  is  not  direct  punishment  for  the  offense  —  especially 
as  a  very  small  proportion  of  such  offenses  are  ever  known 
to  the  teacher  —  but  is  in  letting  the  boys  see  still  more  of 
life.  Show  them  that  the  braggarts  are  not  the  men  who 
do  and  dare,  but  are  the  shallowest  of  imitations.  Show 
them  that  the  vileness  of  these  loafers  is  not  a  quality 
which    makes   for  any  poor  trifle   of  manliness  they   may 


CORRECTIVE  GOVERXMEXT  297 

possess.  The  vices  are  what  they  have  in  common  with 
the  most  despised  and  degraded  of  men,  —  the  failures,  the 
helpless,  the  whining,  cringing  "down-and-outs."  Show  up 
the  braggarts,  not  as  "awful,"  "dreadful,"  and  "naughty," 
but  as  contemptible,  despicable,  and  foohsh.  Fill  the  boys 
with  genuine  stories  of  the  heroes  worth  while,  of  men 
who  really  do  and  dare.  Show  the  clean,  vigorous  manli- 
ness of  explorers,  soldiers,  great  athletes,  and  masters  of 
men.  Do  not  exaggerate  the  minor  vices  be)^ond  the  facts 
of  daily  observation.  Show  that  some  men  may  be  strong, 
capable  leaders  of  men  /;/  spite  of  these  vices,  ne\'er  because 
of  them.  Get  boys  to  seek  the  genuine  elements  of  strength, 
of  manliness,  of  virility.  Do  not  be  too  hasty  to  satisfy 
their  search  by  wise  platitudes  and  moralizing.  Keep  them 
hunting  for  vianliness. 

More  than  all,  we  need  manl)-  men  for  teachers.  Strong, 
vigorous,  athletic  men  —  men  to  whom  the  men  of  the 
community  look  up  ;  men  of  whom  the  loafers  and  brag- 
garts are  afraid  ;  men  with  fists,  if  you  please,  but  especially 
men  with  backbones  and  men  w^ith  hearts  pumping  clean, 
red  blood.  Ilappil}'  we  are  getting  this  new  type  of  men 
for  our  teaching  and  social  work,  for  scout  masters  and 
Y.M.C.A.  leaders,  and  we  are  getting  vigorous,  virile,  active 
"  stunts  "  for  boys  to  do.  And  these  are  the  real  remedies, 
the  only  remedies,  for  foulness  and  vileness. 

As  to  the  girls.  We  have  spoken  of  boys  and  of  men 
teachers  because  their  problem  is  the  more  serious  —  and 
because  we  know  more  about  it.  It  is  similarly  true  that 
the  worst  conduct  of  girls  is  due  to  womanliness  misdirected, 
and  the  remedy  is  a  clearer  appreciation  of  the  hideous 
shallowness  of  some  women  and  the  genuine,  wonderful 
womanliness  of  others.  Girls  should  know  how  false  it  is 
that  beauty  is  only  skin-deep  and  how  infinitely  lovely  is 
•the    beauty   of   genuineness,    wholesomeness,    and    earnest, 


298  SCHOOL  EFFUIKNCV 

useful  womanliness.  It  is  perhaps  because  there  is  so  much 
more  of  splendid  womanliness  than  of  manliness  in  our 
American  teaching  corps  that  the  "  boy  problem  "  is  so 
much  more  serious  than  the  girl  i)roblcni.  While  a  woman 
cannot  be  expected  to  exemplify  virility  for  the  boys,  she 
can  teach  it  if  she  is  the  right  sort  of  woman.  If  a  boy's 
teachers  must  be  effeminate,  women  are  to  be  preferred. 

Authority  and  rebellion.  There  are  teachers  who,  bor- 
rowing their  ideals  of  authority  from  the  military,  regard 
rebellion  as  the  unpardonable  sin  of  the  school  child.  As 
though  driving  slaves  or  mutinous  sailors,  outnumbered 
forty  to  one,  they  say  defiance  of  authority  must  be  sup- 
pressed with  an  iron  hand.  ""  The  very  existence  of  govern- 
ment is  imperiled  if  rebellion  be  not  ])romptly  nipped  in 
the  bud."  "  The  authority  of  the  teacher  must  be  preserved 
at  any  cost."  They  seem  to  regard  their  own  "authority" 
as  a  sort  of  windbag  which,  once  punctured,  must  inevitably 
collapse.  Perhaps  this  is  true  !  Their  sort  of  government 
is  tyranny  and  fit  only  for  slaves  ;  it  develops  subjects  for 
servility  or  for  revolution. 

Democratic  school  government  assumes  that  it  is  of  the 
pupils,  by  the  pupils,  and  for  the  pupils.  The  authority 
of  the  school  is  no  more  identified  with  the  teacher  than 
with  the  pupils.  That  government  derives  its  just  powers 
from  the  interests,  if  not  indeed  from  the  consent,  of  the  gov- 
erned is  accepted  by  teachers  and  pupils  alike.  Rebellious 
outbreaks  are  quite  normal  and  will  frequently  recur.  Hut 
these  are  simply  the  natural  eruptions  of  childhood  and 
adolescence.  The  child  is  rebelling  as  much  against  him- 
self as  against  the  school.  So  far  from  making  deep-laid 
plots  to  overthrow  authority,  he  is  as  much  surprised  by 
his  own  outbreaks  as  is  the  teacher.  The  child  does  not 
know  the  symptoms  or  the  significance  of  them.  The 
teacher   ought   to   know  both,  and   should   be   prepared   to« 


CORRECTIVE  GOVERNMENT  299 

await  quietly  the  end  of  the  eruption  and  then  sympatheti- 
cally help  the  child  to  readjust  himself.  Especially  important 
at  such  times  is  it  to  avoid  useless  show  of  authority  and 
irritating,  dictatorial  ways.  It  is  the  nature  of  the  adolescent 
—  and  is  it  not  of  us  all .''  —  to  resent  the  domineering  tone 
more  than  the  substance  of  actual  control.  Furthermore, 
-  nothing  could  be  more  absolutely  useless  and  foolish  in 
government  than  the  domineering,  "bossy"  tone;  than  a 
scolding  voice ;  than  nagging,  recriminating,  faultfinding, 
threatening.  Few  things  will  more  certainly  undermine 
dignity  and  authority  ■ 

Commands  versus  obedience.  Commands  should  he  taboo 
ill  school.  Directions  should  be  given  in  a  friendly,  coopera- 
tive tone  as  orte  would  talk  to  a  partner,  assuming  that  the 
instructions  are  welcome.  "Will  you"  and  "thank  you" 
are  keys  to  authority  as  well  as  to  culture.  These  are  the 
sort  of  commands  that  freeborn  citizens  should  be  taught 
to  obey.  Voluntary  acquiescence  in  the  requests  of  those 
whose  business  it  is  to  direct  is  far  better  obedience  than 
servile  submission  to  a  harsh  imperative  backed  by  a  fear 
of  consequences.  It  is  the  type  of  obedience  in  which  the 
citizens  of  a  democracy  should  be  trained.  It  makes  for 
better  citizenship,  better  loyalty  and  service  to  the  govern- 
ment, more  law-abiding  and  useful  manhood.  It  leaves  no 
tendency  to  "cut  loose"  when  the  back  of  the  policeman 
or  teacher  is  turned. 

The  authority  of  fairness  and  courtesy.  But  siiavitcr  in 
modo  implies  fortitcr  in  ir.  (iive  directions  politely.  If 
there  is  reason  for  changing,  be  not  slow  or  niggardlv  in 
accepting  suggestions.  Leave  yourself  plenty  of  opportunity 
for  correcting  your  frequent  errors  and  immature  judgments. 
There  is  no  reason  for  making  the  children  think  you 
infallible  nor  the  slightest  possibility  of  doing  so.  Confi- 
dence  is  established    not   by  being  stubborn  but  by  being 


300  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

right.  Such  a  habit  of  reasonableness  makes  it  easy  on 
occasion  to  say,  Just  take  my  word  for  it  this  time,"  or 
to  ask  for  immediate  obedience  without  discussion.  When 
a  tendency  to  quibble  shows  itself,  or  an  oversmart  insist- 
ence on  explanations,  or  if  explanation  is  asked  as  a  con- 
dition of  obedience,  it  is  best  to  insist  quietly  that  "we  will 
do  this  first  and  talk  about  it  afterward."  The  very  first 
resistance  to  the  velvet  of  courtesy  should  bring  a  gentle 
pressure  of  the  steel  of  authorit}'.  Make  it  easy  to  obey  but 
make  it  inevitable.  Do  not  hurry  the  child  when  he  is  in 
an  irresponsible  tantrum,  but  let  him  cool  down  to  a  reali- 
zation of  the  unavoidable.  Before  directions  take  the  form 
of  command,  be  absolutely  sure  that  \-ou  have  the  authority, 
the  right,  the  support  of  higher  officials,  and  that  it  is 
worth  while  —  then  never  give  up.  Hut  this  means  that 
commands  must  be  given  onl\-  after  cool  deliberation,  only 
when  there  can  be  no  question  of  their  justice. 

Threatening  versus  doing.  Threats,  like  peremptory  com- 
mands, have  no  place  in  the  school.  It  is  fair  to  warn  a  child 
that  "  this  must  not  be  done,"  but  it  is  important  to  leave 
the  consequence  of  doing  it  as  an  indefinite  possibility,  mak- 
ing sure  that  if  jumishment  is  imposed  the  connection  with 
the  offense  is  made  perfectly  clear.  The  hasty  "  I'll  whip 
you  if  you  do  that  again  "  is  about  as  subversive  of  perma- 
nent good  discipline  as  anything  that  c(uild  be  devised. 
Usually  such  a  statement  is  a  falsehood,  and  children  are 
not  slow  to  realize  this.  Authority  is  indeed  at  a  low  ebb 
when  children  do  not  even  believe  the  teacher.  Word  once 
given  that  a  certain  consequence  ivill  follow  upon  certain 
conduct,  it  must  follow  as  surely  as  things  human  can  be 
made  sure.  This  means  that  threats  must  not  be  made  in 
anger  or  in  haste  but  only  after  due  thought  and  full  cal- 
culation of  all  immediate  and  ultimate  consequences,  practi- 
cal, pedagogical,  and  legal.    When  all  this  has  been  thought 


CORRECTIVE  GOVERNMENT  301 

out  it  will  doubtless  be  found  that  the  threat  is  not  worth 
the  making.    The  carefully  considered  threat  is  not  made. 

Real  teacher-courage.  A  despairing  teacher  may  protest, 
"  When  one  is  at  his  wits'  end  with  a  hundred  distractions 
and  annoyances,  how  can  he  liclp  threatening?"  To  this 
we  can  only  reply  that  whether  he  can  help  threatening  or 
not,  the  threatening  will  not  help  him.  "  But  if  we  have 
threatened  inadvisedly,  promised  unwisely,  or  commanded 
unjustly,  shall  we  pursue  the  mistake  to  the  bitter  end  and 
perhaps  become  involved  in  litigation  with  loss  of  position 
and  professional  standing.?"  No!  sticking  to  a  wrong  will 
not  make  it  right.  There  is  just  one  way  to  remedy  the 
unjust  command  or  threat ;  that  is,  take  it  back.  The 
quicker,  squarer,  and  franker  the  retraction,  the  better  for 
one's  authority.  As  said  above,  no  one  believes  you  are 
infallible,  so  why  keep  up  the  bluff .?  Admit  your  mistake, 
apologize  for  an  injustice, — as  a  lady  or  gentleman  should, 
—  and  the  children's  respect  for  you  will  grow  just  as  yours 
does  for  the  same  sort  of  nobility  in  one  of  them.  Of  course 
it  is  hard  to  acknowledge  a  wrong,  —  especially  for  a  teacher, 
- — but  it  is  just  as  incumbent  on  teachers  as  on  other 
mortals.  Then,  again,  it  serves  to  make  one  more  careful 
next  time. 

Conclusion.  Discipline  is  required  onlv  in  cases  of  emer- 
gency. The  basis  of  discipline  is  the  diagnosis  of  motives. 
For  this,  one  needs  a  knowledge  of  children,  a  cool  head, 
and  a  sympathetic  heart.  And  in  one's  diagnosis  he  must 
never  lose  sight  of  the  fundamental  fact  that  the  impulses 
W'hich  impel  boys  are  boy  impulses.  I^oy  conduct  cannot  be 
successfully  analyzed  into  the  impulses  of  a  prim  and  pre- 
cise maiden  lady  nor  those  of  a  bespectacled  bookworm. 
W'e  must  read  a  boy's  conduct  through  Jiis  e\es,  not 
through  our  own.  This  seemingly  impossible  thing  is 
entirely   easy  if  only   we   utilize   the   social   control   of  the 


302  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

class.  Offenses  must  be  regarded  as  committed  not  against 
the  teacher  but  against  the  class.  Standards  of  order  are  to 
be  established  and  to  be  enforced  by  the  class  rather  than 
by  the  teacher.  The  class  is  the  better  judge  of  motives 
and  can  more  efhciently  restrain  its  individuals. 

After  all,  the  only  real  remedy  for  bad  order  is  good 
teaching.  If  we  are  unwilling  for  Satan  to  find  work  for 
idle  hands,  we  must  fmd  it  first.  Occupation  the  hands  will 
have.  Teaching  is  not  merely  assigning  tasks  but  making 
them  vital  and  genuine.  When  this  is  done  there  is  no  idle- 
ness, no  laziness,  no  mischief.  This  whole  problem  of  disci- 
pline is  entirely  beside  the  question  for  hundreds  of  teachers. 
It  is  something  with  which  they  have  little  or  no  concern. 
They  are  real  teachers. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Analyze  the  impelling  motives  of  as  many  cases  as  possible 
of  bad  conduct  of  children,  in  school  and  out.  (The  habit  of 
doing  this  is  invaluable  for  a  teacher.) 

2.  When  you  have  decided  upon  the  probable  motive  in  any 
such  case,  determine  the  treatment  which  you  think  would  most 
effectively  meet  the  needs  of  the  particular  case. 

3.  Find,  by  inquiry  and  observation  and  by  recalling  instances 
during  your  school  life,  cases  in  which  dealing  with  school  dis- 
orders by  law  or  regulation  complicated  instead  of  relieved  the 
difficulty. 

4.  Can  you  find  instances  in  which  the  punishment  strengthened 
instead  of  defeated  the  impulse  which  caused  the  misbehavior .'' 

5.  Investigate  a  number  of  different  cases  of  school  fighting. 
Point  out  the  differences  in  cause  among  them  and  different  treat- 
ment appropriate  for  those  involved.  Can  you  give  instances  in 
which  different  treatment  of  different  individuals  under  the  same 
circumstances  would  be  justifiable  ? 

6.  Similarly,  point  out  distinctions  in  other  forms  of  miscon- 
duct —  profanity,   falsehood,    stealing,   cheating,    etc.  —  in    which 


CORRECTIVE  GOVERNMENT  303 

overt  acts  were  similar  but  underlying  causes  were  quite  different. 
What  differences  in  discipline  would  be  appropriate  ? 

7.  Considering  as  many  instances  as  you  can  of  "rebellion 
against  the  teacher's  authority,"'  which  were  premeditated  plans  to 
undermine  authority  and  which  were  mere  uncontrollable  outbreaks 
of  temper  provoked  by  some  harshness  or  supposed  injustice  ? 

READINGS 

Arnold.    School  and  Class  Management,  chaps,  iv,  viii-xii. 

Baglev.    Classroom  Management,  chap.  viii. 

Bain.    Education  as  a  Science,  pp.  52-1 18. 

CoLGROVE.    The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chap.  xxiv. 

Cronson.    Pupil  Self-Government. 

Dewey.    Schools  of  To-morrow,  chap.  xi. 

Dubois.    The  Natural  Way. 

DUTTON.    School  Management,  chap.  viii. 

DuTTON   and  Snedden.   Administration  of  Public   Education  in  the 

United  States,  chap,  xxviii. 
GORDV.    A  Broader  Elementary  Education,  chap,  .x.xvii. 
Griggs.    Moral  Education,  chap.  xiii. 
King.    Education  for  Social  Efficiency,  chap.  x. 
O'Shea.    Everyday  Problems  in  Teaching,  chaps,  i,  ii. 
O'Shea.    Social  Development  and  Education,  Part  I  and  chap.  xv. 
Page.    Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  chap.  x. 
Parker.    Talks  on  Teaching,  chaps,  xxiv-xxv. 
Puffer.    The  Boy  and  his  Gang. 
Sabin.    Common  Sense  Didactics,  chap.  ix. 
Scott.    Social  Education,  chap.  xii. 
Seelev.    New  School  Management,  chaps,  vii-x. 
Swift.    Mind  in  the  Making,  chaps,  ii,  iii. 
Tompkins.    School  Management,  p.  157.  , 


CHAPTER   XXVII 
COMMl  NITV  COCiPERATION 

School  as  the  center  of  education.  Not  all  of  a  child's 
education  is  in  school  —  not  even  the  major  part.  ICvery 
experience  of  life,  in  just  the  proportion  that  it  is  vital, 
just  so  far  as  it  can  affect  subsequent  conduct,  is  a  factor 
in  education.  Home,  church,  street,  fields,  and  woods ; 
work,  play,  reading,  amusements,  and  conversations,  —  all 
are  as  truly  educative  as  school  and  study.  But  these  others 
are  educative  only  incidentally,  while  the  school  has  no  other 
reason  for  its  existence.  The  school  supplements,  organizes, 
and  unifies  these  others.  Education  "  begins  at  the  cradle 
and  ends  at  the  grave,"  but  it  is  school  that  affords  the 
scheme  of  organization  for  it  all.  School  provides  the  plan 
and  policies  of  life  and  that  core  of  interests  by  which  it  is 
determined  from  hour  to  liour  which  cducati\e  influences 
shall  be  selected  and  assimilated  from  the  limitless  universe 
of  one's  experiences.  School  life  interprets  all  life.  Our 
school  subjects  are  no  Diii^^c  a)i  sicJi ;  the\'  ha\'e  no  reality  in 
themselves.  They  are  but  our  means  of  aj:>prehending  our 
out-of-school  experiences.  Giving  the  child  school  subjects 
without  relating  them  tp  life  is  not  unlike  supplying  him 
with  elaborate  machines  without  knowledge  or  opportunity 
for  their  use  ;  tools  without  skill,  plans,  or  materials. 

The  foundation  of  society.  ICducation  is  society's  means 
of  self-preservation.  It  is  the  means  by  which  the  social 
whole  secures  a  constantly  renewed  supply  of  members  who 
will  seek  its  welfare  tlirough  their  own  —  not  their  own  at 
society's    expense.      It    is    the    develoi)ment    of    moral    and 

304 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  305 

efficient  members  of  society  for  which  the  schools  exist,  — 
those  who  are  both  "  good  and  good  for  something."  Tra- 
dition has  worn  the  paths  of  academic  progress  into  such 
deep  ruts  that  many  who  travel  therein  are  wholly  unable 
to  see  the  goal  to  which  they  are  traveling  or  the  direction 
of  the  course  they  are  following.  Teachers  are  often  con- 
tent to  follow  blindly  the  paths  that  have  been  trodden, 
heedless  of  whither  they  lead.  But  the  goal,  whether  or 
not  our  paths  shall  lead  there,  is  this  useful  and  helpful 
member  of  society,  and  it  is  the  real  business  of  the  school 
to  focus  upon  this  aim  all  of  its  own  forces  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  those  of  the  world  outside  of  itself. 

The  unifier  of  modern  life.  Modern  industrial  organiza- 
tion of  society  has  brought  about  a  very  highly  specialized 
and  complex  order  of  affairs.  Every  individual's  existence 
is  becoming  more  dependent  on  world-wide  interrelations 
and  commercial  cooperation.  The  work  of  the  individual 
finds  its  value  only  in  the  conjunction  of  countless  streams 
of  diverse  interests.  Yet  these  very  conditions  of  depend- 
ence result  in  the  laborers  knowing  less  and  less  of 
their  own  and  of  each  other's  part  in  the  whole  process. 
Commercial  progress  makes  for  infinilcly  greater  interde- 
pendence with  incomparably  less  community  of  sympathy. 
Living  becomes  vicarious  in  form  but  selfish  in  spirit.  To 
meet  this  new  condition  the  modern  school  has  a  new  and 
much  broader  responsibility  than  the  schools  of  the  simple 
society  of  former  generations.  Its  supreme  task  is  no  longer 
merely  academic  training ;  it  is  to  unify  the  educative  influ- 
ences outside  of  itself,  to  reintegrate  the  interests  and 
sympathies  which  social  and  industrial  tendencies  are  disin- 
tegrating, to  bridge  gaps  and  weld  together  fragmentary 
bits  of  experience  afforded  by  out-of-school  life,  to  make 
out  of  the  m\-stif\ing  conipk-xitv  of  life  as  seen  from  the 
angle  of  any  individual  ouLl(K)k  a  rational,  beneficent  whole. 


3o6  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

It  is  to  show  that  the  small  contribution  of  every  individual 
is  worthy  and  supremely  im[)ortant  wlicn  intelligibly  related 
to  the  puri)ose  and  i)lan  of  the  whole. 

Community  correlations.  This  unifying  function  of  the 
school  is  being  accomplished  by  vitally  interrelating  the 
work  of  the  school  with  the  life  about  it.  Every  school 
subject  finds  its  motivation  and  its  materials  in  the  imme- 
diate environment.  Classes  in  school  read  and  write  and 
calculate  and  they  talk  and  think  about  the  things  which 
mean  most  to  them  out  of  school.  The  best  books  in 
geography,  in  history,  in  science,  in  ethics,  in  civics,  in 
industry,  are  nature  and  the  neighborhood  life.  Here  also 
are  the  best  laboratories,  the  motivating  problems,  the  limit- 
less source  of  materials  and,  in  fact,  the  final  justification 
for  including  most  subjects  in  the  curriculum. 

""  The  social  trend "  is  the  dominant  note  in  current 
educational  thought  and  achievement.  Correlation  of  school 
work  with  community  life  is  the  burden  of  recent  writings 
and  discussions.  No  longer  is  the  school  a  thing  apart ;  it 
is  the  heart  of  the  community  life.  It  contributes  to  every 
institution  and  aspect  of  the  life  of  the  people,  and  all  these 
make  their  contributions  t(j  it. 

It  is  not  permissible  here  to  go  into  the  matter  of  the 
correlation  of  studies  with  community  activities.  But  the 
problems  of  organization  and  government  also  find  their 
most  effective  means  and  their  ultimate  justification  in 
their  adjustment  to  community  life.  Some  of  the  profit- 
able reciprocal  relations  which  may  readily  be  established 
in  almost  any  community  are  suggested. 

The  press.  The  press,  itself  a  distinctively  educative 
force,  offers  special  advantages  for  cooperation.  Items  of 
school  news  bring  the  claims  of  public  education  to  the 
front  and  tend  to  develop  school  pride  in  both  pupils  and 
people.      Policies   and    needs    of    the    school    can    thus   be 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  307 

brought  constantly  to  the  pubhc  attention.  An  "  honor 
roll  "  in  public  print  affords  a  powerful  incentive  to  indi- 
vidual effort  and  group  loyalty.  The  roll  may  be  based 
on  promptness,  regularity,  scholarship,  deportment,  or  any 
combination  of  these  which  will  accomplish  the  effect  sought 
at  the  time.  It  may  be  large,  including  all  who  do  well, 
or  it  may  be  small  enough  to  be  a  decided  distinction. 
Like  all  incentives,  its  use  should  be  discriminating  and 
varied  —  not  routine. 

Occasional  publication  of  children's  letters,  compositions, 
and  drawings  is  a  wholesome  and  effective  stimulus.  These 
should  not  be  primarily  for  "  showing  off  "  but  should  be 
something  of  real  value  to  the  readcts.  They  may  be  an 
indication  of  the  character  of  the  work  of  the  school,  or 
actual  Information  of  interest  to  the  reading  public.  All 
children  above  the  primary  grades  are  occasionally  learning 
facts  which  would  be  of  interest  to  many  of  their  elders 
if  well  expressed.  This  applies  particularly  to  the  facts  of 
the  home  community  and  its  life.  The  geography,  geol- 
ogy, birds,  plants,  soils,  occupations,  histor)^,  and  traditions 
of  the  neighborhood  are  alwa)s  new  to  some  of  the  com- 
munity. Such  local  studies  will  bring  to  the  front  many 
questions  on  which  data  is  lacking.  Let  the  local  paper 
be  the  medium  for  gathering  ideas  from  the  community  as 
well  as  for  disseminating  them.  The  papers  are  more  than 
repaid  for  publishing  anything  readable  by  the  mere  fact  that 
it  is  read.  It  pays  the  school  as  well  as  other  advertisers  to 
keep  itself  in  the  public  eye. 

News  columns  afford  materials  for  the  study  of  current 
events.  The  fact  that  there  is  much  in  them  that  is  merely 
sensational  is  an  additional  reason  why  the  children  should 
early  be  trained  to  winnow  the  wheat  from  the  chaff.  These 
are  the  papers  they  will  read  and  do  read.  Why  not  teach 
them    to   read    wisel}'  ?    Why  train   them    so    laboriously  to 


3o8  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

read  Addison's  Spectator  and  what  was  news  in  the  time 
of  Cicero,  while  leaving  them  helpless  to  read  discrimi- 
natingly the  evening  paper  and  what  happened  to-day 
throughout  the  world  ?  The  editorial  columns  discuss  the 
live  problems  of  the  day  and  the  community.  Whence 
could  children  better  draw  themes  for  debate  and  studies 
of  living  issues  ?  Daily  market  quotations  afford  an  in- 
exhaustible supply  of  vitalizing  problems  in  the  arithmetic 
of  stocks,  brokerage,  and  commission.  Advertising  columns 
show  the  trend  of  progress  and  standards  of  living,  show 
where  information  regarding  industries  ma\-  be  accessible, 
suggest  manv  lines  of  study  and  afford  materials  therefor. 

"  The  movies."  Moving  pictures  afford  an  agency  un- 
equaled  for  teaching  through  the  eye.  In  many  quarters 
they  are  being  deplored  as  an  agency  unequaled  for  corrupt- 
ing morals  and  interfering  with  home  study.  Quite  logically, 
therefore,  progressive  schools  arc  now  being  equipped  with 
instruments  of  their  own,  and  producers  are  preparing  reels 
which  will  be  invaluable  in  the  teaching  of  school  sub- 
jects. Where  machines  are  not  available  these  reels  may 
be  secured  for  exhibition  at  the  regular  show^  houses  under 
conditions  of  advantage  to   both  showman   and  schoolman. 

Other  public  entertainments.  Lyceum  courses,  lectures, 
and  concerts  of  every  desirable  kind  have  long  been  re- 
garded as  natural  co-laborers  with  the  school,  and  the 
indorsement  and  support  of  educators  is  commonly  sought 
by  them.  This  is  right.  All  such  agencies  should  be 
welcomed  by  the  school  authorities  as  reenforcements,  and 
class  work  may  well  be  readjusted  to  secure  an  effective 
correlation.  A  few  hours  devoted  to  preparing  for  and 
following  up  a  good  lecture  or  concert  should  produce  far 
greater  educative  dividends  than  the  same  time  spent  on 
the  routine  of  study.  A  course  of  study  which  is  not  adapt- 
able to  such  variations  is  in  danger  of  ossification. 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  309 

School  and  public  service  ;  reciprocal  benefits.  Govern- 
ment, in  every  aspect  with  which  the  child  is  likely  to 
come  into  contact,  is  a  peculiarly  important  part  of  the 
community  environment  with  which  to  relate  the  activities 
of  the  school.  It  is  becoming  quite  the  usual  custom  in 
many  cities  for  classes  to  visit  the  various  departments  of 
city  government,  studying  them  in  every  relation  they  bear 
to  the  people.  This  has  brought  the  children  to  feel  an 
interest  and  partnership  in  the  work  of  these  departments, 
to  become  useful  cooperators,  and  to  get  a  sympathetic 
insight  which  is  sure  to  make  them  better  citizens  later 
on.  The  effect  on  the  departments  themselves  has  been 
decidedly  wholesome.  One  city  reports  that  the  water- 
works plant  has  never  been  so  carefully  kept  as  since  it 
has  become  the  custom  of  the  school  children  to  visit  it. 
Everywhere  the  police  force  has  benefited  by  a  friendly, 
cooperative  attitude  of  the  boys  as  much  as  the  boys  have 
benefited  by  their  loss  of  fear  and  gain  in  understanding  of 
the  "  cop."  Needless  restrictions  on  the  boys  have  been 
removed,  places  for  them  to  play  have  been  found  and  they 
have  been  protected  in  that  play,  while  they  themselves  have 
reciprocated  by  avoiding  play  that  interferes  with  the  rights 
or  pleasures  of  others.  There  has  been  a  marked  decrease 
in  the  destruction  of  public  or  exposed  property.  The  boys 
have  become  its  defenders.  .Streets  and  parks  are  more 
easily  kept  in  order,  though  used  more  than  ever  b)'  the 
children.  It  is  no  longer  neccssan'  to  start  a  blaze  in  order 
to  sec  the  lire  engine,  as  has  often  been  true  in  the  past. 
The  boy  who  has  been  courteously  shown  over  the  whole 
fire  department  and  had  its  operation  explained  will  prove 
a  valuable  ally  in  discovering  or  preventing  fires  and  is 
proud  to  do  the  right  thing  at  the  right  time. 

Systematic  instruction  by  public  officials.  Quite  com- 
monly some  competent  person  from  the  fire,  police,  water, 


3IO  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

street,  or  other  city  department  will  give  a  series  of  talks 
to  the  school  children,  explaining  in  more  or  less  detail 
the  working  of  the  department  and  showing  how  its  effi- 
ciency may  be  increased  by  the  cooperation  of  the  people. 
The  children,  and  through  them  their  parents,  thus  have 
the  opportunity  to  become  more  useful  citizens  and  to  work 
intelligently  in  raising  the  standards  of  their  public  service. 
Such  relations  inevitably  make  the  departmental  officials 
more  conscious  of  their  own  deficiencies  and  more  consci- 
entious in  their  service. 

The  courts.  In  a  similar  way  a  first-hand  study  of  the 
courts  brings  the  child  into  an  appreciative  understanding 
of  government  on  the  restrictive  side.  Viewing  its  work- 
ings from  the  side  of  the  government,  one  comes  to  have  a 
respect  for  the  law  without  the  fear  or  antagonism  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  boy  on  the  street.  While  the  child  should 
not  see  the  more  sordid  cases,  he  may  well  have  a  chance  to 
see  the  perils  of  the  sort  of  offenses  that  he  is  likely  to  fall 
into  and  to  understand  the  conditions  which  are  likely  to 
lead  to  such  offenses.  A  judge  will  often  welcome  the  oppor- 
tunity to  impart  to  future  citizens  through  occasional  talks 
those  lessons  which  his  experience  shows  they  most  need 
as  safeguards  to  their  prospective  citizenship.  The  weight 
which  such  instruction  would  carry  with  it  is  obvious. 

Legislative  bodies.  There  could  liardlv  be  a  more  effective 
training  in  good  citizenship  than  to  have  pupils  or  represen- 
tative committees  from  the  high  school  attend  the  meetings 
of  the  city  council  or  board  of  county  commissioners.  The 
live  problems  of  public  affairs  may  thus  become  the  problems 
for  school  study  and  debate.  Parents  are  naturally  consulted 
for  materials  and  opinions  and  thus  derive  a  renewed  inter- 
est in  these  questions.  It  needs  no  argument  to  prove  that  a 
lack  of  knowledge  and  consequent  lack  of  interest  in  public 
matters  is  the  prime  cause  of  official  corruption.     If  such 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  311 

meetings  are  not  fit  places  for  schoolboys  and  schoolgirls  to 
be,  it  is  certainly  time  that  citizens,  young  and  old,  should 
take  steps  to  see  that  they  are  made  fit.  As  for  understand- 
ing public  affairs,  it  should  be  remembered  that  they  go 
primarily  to  learn. 

Commercial  bodies  and  welfare  organizations.  In  pro- 
gressive communities  there  are  various  unofficial  bodies 
organized  for  the  public  welfare,  such  as  chambers  of  com- 
merce, business  associations,  and  various  welfare  leagues. 
These  usually  consist  of  the  best  people  of  the  community 
engaged  in  seeking  its  best  interests.  Their  purpose  can  be 
tremendously  aided  by  seeking  the  interest  and  cooperation 
of  the  school  children,  and  the  school  can  find  no  more 
effective  agency  for  teaching  the  highest  lessons  of  civics. 
In  Winston-Salem,  North  Carolina,  and  some  other  cities 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce  has  admitted  the  high-school 
boys  to  an  affiliated  membership  and  organized  them  into  a 
Junior  Chamber  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  same  questions 
and  fostering  of  the  same  ideals  and  purposes.  The  civic 
leagues,  improvement  associations,  and  women's  clubs, 
which  have  been  such  potent  agencies  for  community  better- 
ment all  over  the  country,  have  found  the  cooperation  of 
auxiliary  or  junior  leagues  to  be  an  effective  means  of 
accomplishing  many  of  their  purposes. 

Efficiency  of  children  in  public  work.  This  wise  organiza- 
tion and  stimulation  of  scliool  children  has  frequently  been 
followed  by  truly  surprising  results  in  the  way  of  beautifying 
or  cleaning  up  a  town.  Their  sharp  eyes  and  busy  hands 
can  accomplish  wonders  when  directed  by  wholesome  enthu- 
siasm. Many  trying  forms  of  disorder  and  mischief  with 
which  the  constituted  authorities  are  powerless  to  cope  can 
readily  be  controlled  through  the  ubiquitous  small  boy.  He 
may  at  least  be  trusted  not  to  engage  in  that  which  he  is 
appointed  to  suppress. 


312  SCIK^n.  EFFICIENCY 

In  Indianapolis  pupil  jiarticiixUion  in  tlic  rrovernmcnt  of  the 
school  leads  naturally  into  pupil  participation  in  the  larger  civic 
life  of  the  community  of  which  the  school  itself  is  a  part.  Main- 
taining order  on  the  playground  naturally  extends  to  maintaining 
order  on  the  streets  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school.  It  is  common 
for  committees  of  older  boys  to  look  after  the  safety  of  younger 
children  in  crossing  streets  near  the  school.  Solicitude  for  the 
cleanliness  and  beauty  of  school  grounds  develops  equal  solicitude 
for  the  cleanliness  and  beauty  of  adjoining  streets,  alleys,  and  va- 
cant lots.  School  gardening  quickly  stimulates  home  gardening,  and 
whole  neighborhoods  have  been  transformed  through  the  influence 
■  of  the  scheols.  —  Letter  of  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 

Boy  Scouts.  The  Boy  Scout  movement,  which  has  swept 
the  world,  is  an  untold  power  for  educative  progress.  It 
should  have,  and  doubtless  has,  the  unqualified  support 
and  cooperation  of  school  authorities  everywhere.  The  Scout 
spirit  of  manliness  could  with  great  profit  be  carried  over 
into  much  of  the  work  of  the  school.  Wherever  modifica- 
tion of  schedule,  course  of  study,  or  other  accommodation 
can  bring  about  a  more  effective  cooperation  with  the  Scout 
organization,  the  schools  will  doubtless  be  the  gainers  as 
well  as  the  Scouts. 

School  savings  bank.  The  school  savings  bank  affords 
an  unequaled  practical  agency  for  training  in  thrift.  By 
cooperation  with  a  progressive  bank,  deposit  books  are  pro- 
vided. At  stated  times  the  teachers  or  other  designated  per- 
sons receive  deposits  of  one  cent  or  more  and  transfer  them 
in  a  lump  to  the  bank.  The  plan  is  so  easily  operated  and 
so  readily  responded  to,  especially  by  the  jDoorer  pupils,  that 
it  should  be  in  use  everywhere,  city  and  country. 

The  school  savings  bank  of  Public  School  No.  77  of  Borough 
of  Queens,  New  York  City,  has  had  $4300  deposited  in  it  in  the 
three  years  of  its  existence.  More  than  half  of  this  amount  is  still 
on  deposit  either  with  the  school  bank  or  with  a  State  Savings 
Bank.  —  Letter  of  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  313 

Industries  of  the  community.  Every  industry  of  the  com- 
munity likewise  has  its  values  in  assisting  the  school  activi- 
ties, both  by  the  materials  it  affords  for  concrete,  vitalized 
instruction  and  in  its  lessons  of  organization  and  reciprocal 
service  to  the  community  and  to  the  industrial  world.  The 
enlightened  management  of  such  concerns  usually  feels  more 
than  repaid  for  any  part  it  may  take  in  making  its  opera- 
tions clear  to  children,  by  the  mere  fact  of  having  the  pub- 
lic attention  called  to  them.  "'  Visitors  Welcome  "  has  been 
found  to  be  much  better  advertising  than  "  Keep  Out,"  and 
as  a  foundation  for  a  large  permanent  prosperity  children 
are  a  most  desirable  class  of  consumers  to  keep  in  touch 
with.  A  favorable  impression  on  future  consumers  is  re- 
garded as  a  good  investment.  And  for  the  school,  few 
forms  of  instruction  are  as  effective  and  ecoriomical  as  these 
industrial  studies. 

In  one  city  a  locomotive  works  equipped  a  small  machine 
shop  for  a  high  school  and  guaranteed  to  give  employ- 
ment to  every  boy  graduating  from  the  high  school  who 
desired  it.  The  investment  was  doubtless  a  good  one,  A 
large  dominant  industry  can  well  afford  the  materials  and 
equipment  to  make  the  local  school  a  training  school  for  its 
future  employees,  and  to  contribute  freely  to  turning  the 
thoughts  of  the  community  favorably  towards  its  activities 
and  purposes. 

Educative  materials  as  advertising.  Many  progressive 
manufacturing  concerns  ha\e  found  it  a  desirable  form  of 
advertising  to  supply  schools  in  general  with  instructive  ex- 
hibits of  pictures,  models,  specimens,  and  samples,  showing 
each  step  in  the  process  by  which  the  raw  materials  are  con- 
verted into  the  finished  product.  One  large  concern  sup- 
plies at  a  nominal  cost  a  series  of  lectures,  illustrated  with 
stereopticon  views  and  moving  pictures  —  practically  without 
advertising  —  showing    the    historical    development    of    the 


314  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

industry  in  which  it  is  engaged  from  primitive  times  to 
the  present.  Others  furnish  views  and  facts  from  which 
any  person  can  readily  develop  a  lecture.  Another  main- 
tains a  "service  bureau"  at  considerable  cost  to  cooperate 
with  schools  in  affording  any  facts,  information,  references, 
or  advice  looking  toward  vitalizing  instruction  in  the  agri- 
cultural industry  in  which  it  is  interested. 

Railroad  cooperation.  Railroads  have  usually  proved  valu- 
able and  willing  aids  in  educational  work,  and  their  in- 
formation bureaus  afford  splendid  illustrative  and  instruc- 
tive materials  regarding  any  country  or  industry  tributary  to 
their  respective  lines.  Their  activity  in  cooperation  with  the 
state  departments  of  agriculture  or  the  state  agricultural 
colleges  and  with  the  health  departments,  maintaining  ex- 
perimental farms  and  furnishing  lecture  and  exhibit  trains, 
shows  the  progress  of  enlightened  selfishness  and  liberal 
cooperation  of  these  great  corporations  with  the  agencies 
for  public  welfare. 

Instruction  by  housekeepers.  The  superintendent  of  a 
western  town  was  without  funds  or  equipment  for  introduc- 
ing domestic  science.  He  enlisted  the  aid  of  the  best  house- 
keepers in  town.  At  appointed  times  the  class  of  girls  visited 
the  homes  of  these  ladies  in  turn.  Each  taught  the  girls  in 
her  own  way  the  thing  which  she  could  do  best.  One  taught 
how  to  make  bread  ;  another,  salad  ;  another,  cake  ;  another, 
butter.  One  taught  how  to  clean  a  room  ;  another,  how  to 
set  the  table  and  how  to  serve,  etc.  The  girls  rendered  real 
service  where  possible  and  brought  materials  for  the  cook- 
ing. Thus  everyone  was  benefited.  The  girls  not  only  had 
the  direct  instruction  but  incidentally  gathered  many  ideas  of 
home-making.  The  highest  housekeeping  standards  of  the 
community  were  made  known  in  most  of  the  homes,  and 
the  cooperating  ladies  became  profoundly  interested  in  the 
work  and  success  of  the  school. 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  315 

Instruction  by  tradesmen.  The  cooperation  of  carpenters, 
blacksmiths,  gardeners,  and  masters  in  other  trades  may  be 
secured  at  school  or  at  their  own  shops  to  instruct  the  chil- 
dren in  those  practical  things  which  everyone  ought  to  know. 
The  school  may  well  reciprocate  by  helping  to  honor  and 
dignify  craftsmanship  everywhere  and  by  encouraging  the 
children  to  render  assistance  of  real  value  where  possible. 

School-home  gardens.  In  any  rural  community  or  any 
urban  community  where  there  are  vacant  lots  and  back  }-ards 
uncultivated,  lessons  from  farmers  and  gardeners  should  have 
a  peculiarly  immediate  and  practical,  as  well  as  educative, 
value.  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation indicate  that  these  home  gardens  under  school  direc- 
tion and  guidance  are  coming  to  have  a  considerable  economic 
importance  to  the  families  of  the  children  engaged  in  culti- 
vating them,  while  their  values  in  improving  the  conditions 
of  the  yards  and  vacant  lots,  in  keeping  children  from  idling 
on  the  streets,  and  in  inspiring  ideals  of  thrift  and  self-respect 
are  too  obvious  to  need  discussion.  A  paid  and  trained  in- 
structor is  necessary  to  conduct  this  work  on  a  large  scale, 
but  the  small  beginnings  can  be  profitably  conducted  by  any 
earnest  teacher  or  public-spirited  person  with  the  advisory 
assistance  of  some  gardener.  In  19 16  the  total  values  of  the 
products  of  these  school-home  gardens  amounted  to  many 
thousands  of  dollars,  and  the  movement  is  hopefully  expected 
to  play  no  small  part  in  relieving  the  strain  of  world-wide 
food  shortage.  A  number  of  school  children  have  each  pro- 
duced more  than  one  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  foodstuffs 
in  this  way.  Both  directly  and  indirectly  it  is  a  movement  of 
national  economic  significance.  The  Bureau  of  Education 
publishes  a  series  of  verv  j^actical  .School-Home  Garden 
Circulars  which  will  be  sent  to  any  interested  persons. 

Medical  counsel.  A  phvsician  of  high  ideals  mav  be  of 
incalculable  value  to  the  sciiool.    lie  can  talk  on  moral  and 


3i6  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

hygienic  problems  with  an  authority  and  effectiveness  beyond 
the  power  of  the  teacher.  Most  of  these  professional  men  are 
willing  and  well  fitted  to  contribute  to  the  general  welfare  in 
this  way.  Their  talks  on  personal  hygiene  clinch  and  drive 
home  with  a  tremendous  force  the  lessons  taught  from  the 
texts.  Medical  and  dental  inspection,  as  discussed  in  another 
chapter,  alsc^  aftord  opportunities  for  the  [xofessional  men  of 
the  smaller  communities  to  cooperate  with  reciprocal  benefits. 
School  credits  for  home  work.  An  interesting  form  of 
cooperation  with  the  homes  was  devised  by  Mr.  A.  I.  O'Reilly 
of  Polk  County,  Oregon,  and  has  been  extended  with  varia- 
tions to  many  parts  of  the  country.  This  is  a  plan  of  giv- 
ing school  credits  for  home  work  of  various  kinds,  as  indicated 
by  the  following  schedule  of  credits  :  ^ 

Building  fire  in  the  morning,  5  minutes ;  milking  a  cow,  5  min- 
utes ;  cleaning  out  the  barn,  i  o  minutes  ;  splitting  and  carrying  in 
wood  (12  hours'  supply),  10  minutes;  turning  cream  separator, 
10  minutes;  cleaning  horse  (each  horse),  10  minutes;  gather- 
ing eggs,  10  minutes;  feeding  chickens,  5  minutes;  feeding 
pigs,  5  minutes ;  feeding  horse,  5  minutes ;  feeding  cows,  5  min- 
utes;  churning  butter,  ro  minutes;  making  butter,  10  minutes; 
blacking  stove,  5  minutes ;  making  and  baking  bread,  i  hour ; 
making  biscuits,  10  minutes;  preparing  the  breakfast  for  family, 
30  minutes;  preparing  supper  for  family,  30  minutes;  washing 
and  wiping  dishes  (one  meal),  1 5  minutes ;  sweeping  floor,  5  min- 
utes;  dusting  furniture  (rugs,  etc.,  one  room),  5  minutes;  scrub- 
bing floor,  20  minutes;  making  beds  (must  be  made  after  school), 
each  bed  5  minutes ;  washing,  ironing,  and  starching  own  clothes 
that  arc  worn  at  school  (each  week),  2  hours;  bathing  (each  bath), 
30  minutes ;  arriving  at  school  with  clean  hands,  face,  teeth,  and 
nails,  and  with  hair  combed,  10  minutes;  jiracticing  music  lesson 
(for  30  minutes),  10  minutes;  retiring  on  or  before  9  o'clock, 
5  minutes;  bathing  and  dressing  baby,  10  minutes;  sleeping  with 
window  boards  in  bedroom  (each  night),  5  minutes ;  other  work 

*  Alderman,  .School  Industrial  Credit  and  Home  Industrial  Work. 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  317 

not  listed,   reasonable   credit.    The  conditions  and   rules  of   the 
home-credit  contest  are  given  here: 

1.  No  pupil  is  obliged  to  enter  the  contest. 

2.  Any  pupil  entering'  is  free  to  quit  at  any  time,  but  if  any- 
one quits  without  good  cause,  all  credits  he  or  she  may  have 
earned  will  be  forfeited. 

3.  Parent  or  guardian  must  send  an  itemized  list  (with  signa- 
ture affixed)  to  the  teacher  each  morning.  This  list  must  contain 
the  record  of  the  work  each  child  has  done  daily. 

4.  Each  day  teacher  will  issue  a  credit  voucher  to  the  pupil. 
This  voucher  will  state  the  total  number  of  minutes  due  the  pupil 
each  day  for  home  work. 

5.  At  the  close  of  the  contest  pupils  will  return  vouchers  to 
teacher,  the  six  pupils  who  have  earned  the  greatest  amount  of 
time,  per  the  vouchers,  receiving  awards. 

6.  Contest  closes  when  term  of  school  closes. 

7.  Once  each  month  the  names  of  the  six  pupils  who  are  in 
the  lead  will  be  published  in  the  county  papers. 

8.  Ten  per  cent  credit  will  be  added  to  final  examination 
results  of  all  pupils  (except  eighth  graders)  who  enter  and  continue 
in  the  contest. 

9.  When  pupil  has  credits  to  the  amount  of  one  day  earned, 
by  surrender  of  the  credits  and  proper  application  to  teacher  he 
may  be  granted  a  holiday,  prcn-ided  not  more  than  one  holiday  may 
be  granted  to  a  pupil  each  month. 

10.  Forfeitures  —  Dropping  out  of  contest  without  cause,  all 
credits  due ;  unexcused  absence,  all  credits  due ;  unexcused  tardi- 
ness, 25  per  cent  off  all  credits  due;  less  than  90  per  cent  in 
deportment  for  one  month,  10  per  cent  off  all  credits  due. 

11.  Awards  —  Three  having  highest  credits,  $3  each;  three 
having  second  highest,  $2  each.  Awards  to  be  placed  in  a  savings 
bank  to  the  credit  of  the  pupil  winning  it.  Funds  for  awards 
furnished  by  the  school-district  board  out  of  general  fund. 

Values  of  credit  scheme.  W'iilioiit  approving  all  details 
of  the  plan  as  thus  outlined,  we  may  give  some  of  the  advan- 
tages possible  from  stich  a  credit  system  of  cooperation 
between  home  and  school : 


31 8  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

1.  It  trains  in  habits  of  health  and  industry  without  the 
driving  b)-  parents  so  often  necessary. 

2.  It  meets  a  sore  need  in  homes  where  parents  them- 
selves are  ignorant,  shiftless,  or  too  indulgent. 

3.  It  forms  an  adequate  concrete  starting  point  for  ap- 
plied instruction  in  hygiene,  sanitation,  and  home  ideals, 
which  otherwise  may  be  difificult  to  apply  without  offense. 

4.  It  may  be  made  an  effective  center  of  correlation  for 
vital  instruction  iii  TLnglish,  applied  arithmetic,  and  reading. 

5.  It  develops  a  respect  for  the  homely  virtues  and  whole- 
some living,  for  the  routine  duties  of  father  and  mother. 

6.  It  successfullv  links  the  interests  of  home  and  school, 
giving  the  parents  a  part  in  school  life  and  thus  increasing 
their  interest  in  it. 

Other  plans.  In  St.  I.ouis  a  different  plan  of  crediting  for 
home  duties  has  been  used  with  apparent  success.  There  is  a 
monthly  record  containing  blanks  for  grades  on  various  forms 
of  characteristic  home  work  as  well  as  for  the  regular  school 
grades.  The  parent  fills  in  the  grade  for  home  work  on  the 
basis  of  the  excellence  and  faithfulness  of  its  performance 
during  the  month,  and  the  teacher  accepts  this  grade  as 
equivalent  to  one  required  subject  of  the  school  course. 

In  Massachusetts  some  "  home  project"  is  required  as  a 
part  of  all  courses  in  agriculture  given  in  the  state-aided 
schools.  This  "  project  "  is  some  considerable  and  valuable 
piece  of  work  conducted  faithfully  under  the  approved 
methods  presented  in  the  course.  It  may  be  the  cultivation 
of  a  patch  of  corn  or  potatoes,  the  raising  of  a  pen  of  poultry 
or  pigs  or  the  care  of  a  cow  for  a  season  with  scientific 
feeding  and  milkin;^^  and  full  records  showing  values, 
tests,  etc. 

Instruction  by  "  home  projects."  The  homes,  farms,  and 
shops  of  any  community  may  constitute  an  equipment  for 
industrial   teaching   in   many  respects  superior  to  any  that 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  319 

can  be  provided  at  school.  Lessons  in  domestic  arts  and 
sciences  are  most  effective  and  least  subject  to  the  charge 
of  being  impracticable  fads  when  they  consist  in  the  actual 
work  of  the  homes  guided  and  improved  by  class  instruction 
and  credited  on  the  basis  of  actual  home-keeping  efficiency. 
The  individual  garden  plot  which  each  boy  cultivates  in  his 
own  back  yard  or  a  neighboring  vacant  lot  constitutes  the 
ideal  laboratory  for  observation  and  practice  of  the  members 
of  a  class  in  agriculture.  The  value  of  the  lessons  is  greatly 
enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  pupil  receives  the  reward  of 
his  study  and  care  in  the  form  of  profits  and  products  instead 
of  artificial  and  meaningless  marks.  Manual-training  lessons 
may  be  conducted  in  the  form  of  useful  work  done  at  home. 
Instead  of  a  series  of  set  and  possibly  useless  exercises  taking 
many  hours  of  sadly  needed  schooltime,  the  boys  may  find 
their  problems  in  the  actual  needs  of  the  home.  One  desires 
to  make  a  new  gate  or  prevent  the  old  one  from  sagging, 
another  wants  to  put  a  shelf  in  the  pantry  for  mother, 
another  to  make  a  set  of  steps  or  a  flower  stand.  Detailed 
instructions,  ])lans,  and  specifications  can  be  worked  out  by 
and  for  the  whole  class.  Those  interested  in  one  particular 
problem  will  work  it  out,  reporting  progress  regularly  to  the 
class.  Others  will  be  simultaneously  working  up  other  proj- 
ects in  which  they  are  interested.  This  home  correlation  is 
a  boon  to  small  and  poorly  equipped  schools,  and  those 
without  adequate  teaching  force,  in  the  utilizing  of  home 
equipment  and  home  time. 

Utilizing  neighborhood  knowledge.  A  further  adxantage 
of  this  correlated  home  work  is  that  instead  of  the  getting 
of  outside  help  or  advice  being  considered  a  dishonorable 
thing,  as  is  usually  true  in  academic  work,  it  is  regarded  as 
good,  sound  sense.  Every  encouragement  is  given  to  find 
the  best  means  of  doing  the  task  in  hand  by  seeking  in- 
formation from  every  available  source.     What  one  does  n't 


320  SCHOOL   KiriCIKNCY 

know  he  finds  out  in  the  most  economical  way  possible. 
Parents,  neighbors,  locally  famous  cooks,  master  tradesmen, 
and  all  who  know  are  freely  called  upon  for  all  they  are 
willing  to  im.part.  They  may  come  to  the  school,  or  the 
pupils  may  go  to  them. 

Supervision  and  exhibition  of  home  work.  This  corre- 
lated home  work  should  be  fully  reported  and  carefully 
recorded  for  credit  as  school  work.  Teachers  and  pupils 
should  occasionally  make  tours  of  inspection  and  instruc- 
tion to  the  homes  where  such  work  is  being  done.  The 
products  should  occasionally  be  massed  as  far  as  possible  in 
exhibits.  A  "  patrons'  day  "  celebration  or  a  special  "  home- 
work day  "  affords  the  right  opportunity.  Along  with  the 
specimens  of  cake,  bread,  butter,  jellies,  fruits,  etc.  of  the 
cooking  classes  and  the  sewing  and  fancy  work  of  the 
domestic-arts  pupils  are  shown  basketry,  mats,  and  carpen- 
try work  ;  poultry,  pigs,  and  garden  products  ;  farm  and  stock 
records.  Photographs  of  back-yard  improvements  —  taken 
before  and  after  —  and  of  the  large  nonportable  undertak- 
ings make  such  specimens  of  the  children's  handiwork 
also  available  for  display  and  competition.  Prizes  should 
be  offered  to  stimulate  such  activities,  and  committees  of 
prominent  citizens  should  be  interested  in  providing  and 
awarding  them. 

The  church.  The  church  is  the  mother  of  education. 
During  the  Dark  Ages  it  was  the  church  which  preserved 
all  that  was  saved  of  learning  and  perpetuated  the  spirit 
and  agencies  for  disseminating  it.  Modern  school  systems  — 
elementary,  secondary,  and  higher  —  arose  through  the  ini- 
tiative of  the  church.  Now  that  the  principle  of  public 
education  as  a  fundamental  responsibility  of  government  is 
recognized  there  should  continue  to  be  the  most  cordial 
relations  between  church  and  school.  There  should,  of 
course,    not    be    tolerated    the    remotest    effort    to    use    the 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  321 

public  schools  for  sectarian  ends  nor  to  inject  sectarian 
beliefs  or  influences  into  its  instruction  or  organization. 
But  the  ministers  of  the  several  denominations  are  usually 
the  most  capable  and  willing  people  of  the  community  for 
contributing  to  the  broader  activities  of  the  school  and 
effecting  its  wholesome  correlation  with  the  community. 
Their  learning  and  public  spirit  is  usually  at  the  disposal 
of  the  teachers  for  the  gof)d  of  the  schools.  They  often 
visit  the  schools  to  give  a  word  of  cheer  and  encourage- 
ment. In  their  pastoral  work  the  various  ministers  can 
do  much  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  teachers  and  to 
secure  the  cooperation  of  parents  by  bringing  about  better 
appreciation  of  the  aims  and  purposes  of  the  school.  Their 
close  relation  to  their  respective  parishioners  should  count 
much  in  securing  harmony  and  the  highest  efficiency  in 
school  affairs. 

The  obligation  is  mutual.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  teacher  to  show  by  precept  and  example  that 
lie  stands  loyally  for  that  older  educational  institution  which 
exists  solely  for  whatever  is  noblest  and  highest  in  life. 
lie  should  honor  and  resjDect  every  church  and  work  faith- 
fully in  his  own.  Like  other  good  citizens  he  should  not 
attempt  to  be  in  every  church  but  to  be  useful  in  some 
church.  Willi  lieliefs  on  which  sincere,  religious  people 
are  divided,  the  school  has  absolutely  nothing  to  do  ;  but 
any  study  of  realities  brings  us  ultimately  face  to  face  with 
the  infmite  and  the  unknowable,  and  here  the  true  teacher 
should  reverentl)'  ])()int  his  pupils  toward  God.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  teach  religion,  but  it  is  vitally  important  to 
teach  religiously.  We  may  leave  the  teaching  of  religion 
to  the  churches,  but  we  should  help  ever\'  child  to  feel  that 
the  truths  of  religion  and  a  better  understanding  of  things 
eternal  and  things  divine  is  the  most  worth  while  of  all  the 
learning  of  mankind. 


322  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

PROBLEMS 

1.  In  any  recent  course  of  study  indicate  the  materials  intended 
specifically  to  relate  the  child  to  his  environment. 

2.  \\'hat  similar  materials  do  you  find  in  recent  textbooks  in 
science,  geography,  etc.  ? 

3.  From  your  own  observation  make  a  list  of  a  number  of 
facts  of  nature,  life,  and  industry  in  your  community  which  you 
regard  as  important  for  the  children  to  be  taught.  Make  another 
list  of  textbook  facts  which  you  think  might  well  be  displaced  by 
the  community  facts  if  either  must  give  way. 

4.  Sketch  a  plan  for  reorganizing  your  school  so  far  as  may 
be  advisable  to  bring  it  into  thorough  correlation  (a)  with  the 
industries  of  the  community,  (/')  with  the  home  life,  (r)  with  the 
public  and  governmental  institutions,  (ti)  with  professional  men 
and  interests. 

5.  Draw  up  a  practical  plan  for  encouraging  home  activities 
adapted  for  the  school  under  your  consideration. 

6.  How  would  you  answer  the  argument  that  the  school  has 
already  more  than  it  can  do  to  teach  the  fundamentals  and  ordi- 
nary subjects  without  attempting  to  cover  the  whole  community  ? 

READINGS 

C.VRVER.    Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  chap.  vi. 

Dewey.    Democracy  and  Education. 

Dewev.    The  School  and  Society,  chap.  ii. 

Dewey.    Schools  of  To-morrow,  chap.  vii. 

Egolestox  and  Bkiekk.    The  Work  of  the  Rural  School. 

Hart.    Educational  Resources  of  \'illage  and  Rural  Schools,  chaps,  ii, 

v,  vi,  vii. 
King.    Education  for  Social  Efficiency,  chaps,  iii-vi. 
Scott.    Social  Education,  chaps,  v-vii. 
Seerley.    The  Country  School,  chaps,  ii,  iii. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  Xo.  j8s.  School 

Credit  for  Home  I'ractice  in  Agriculture. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletins 

Bulletin  No.  2j,   1913,  "The  Georgia  Club  at  the  State  Normal 
School  for  the  Study  of  Rural  Sociology  "  (Branson). 


COMMUNITY  COOPERATION  323 

Bulletin  No.  47,  1913.  "Teaching  Materials  in  Government  Publi- 
cations." 

Bulletin  No.  4g.  191  3,  "  The  Farragut  School,  a  Tennessee  Country- 
Life  High  School  "  (Monahan  and  Phillips). 

Bulletin  No.  18,  1914,  "The  Public  School  System  of  Gary,  Indi- 
ana "  (Burris). 

Bulletin  No.  46,  191 4,  "  School  Savings  Banks"  (Oberholzer). 

Bulletins  Nos.  j6-jg,  1914,  "  Education  for  the  Home"  (Andrews). 

Bulletin  No.  i,  191 5,  "  Cooking  in  the  Vocational  School "'  (O'Leary). 

Bulletin  No.  //,  191 5,  "  Civic  Education  in  Elementary  Schools  as 
illustrated  in  Indianapolis  "  (Dunn). 

Bulletin  :Vo.  2j,  191 5,  "  The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics." 

Bulletin  No.  j8,  191 5.  "The  University  and  the  Municipality." 

Bulletin  N^o.  4j.  191 5,  "The  Danish  People's  High  School" 
(Hegland). 

Bulletin  No.  8,  1914,  "The  Massachusetts  Home-Project  Plan  of 
Vocational  Agricultural  Education  "  (Stimson). 

Bulletin  No.  40,  1916,  "Gardening  in  Elementary  City  Schools" 
(Jarvis). 

Bulletin  A'o.  d,  1 91  7, "  Educative  and  Economic  Possibilities  of  School- 
directed  Home  Gardening  in  Richmond,  Indiana"  (Randall). 


CHAPTER   XXVIII 
SCHOOL   EXTENSION 

Unrestricted  service  the  new  ideal.  Our  last  chapter  dealt 
with  sonic  of  the  ways  in  which  the  modern  school  is  seek- 
ing to  increase  its  usefulness  by  utilizing  in  the  instruction 
of  pupils  the  interest  and  cooperation  of  the  entire  com- 
munity. The  public  school  reaches  out  and  gathers  in  more 
broadly  only  that  it  may  more  broadly  and  effectively  serve. 
If  it  boldly  lays  tribute  on  all  institutions  and  all  classes  of 
people  that  it  can  make  use  of,  it  no  less  actively  seeks 
out  every  class  of  the  needy  and  tenders  its  services.  In- 
deed it  forces  its  help  on  those  who  are  blind  to  their  own 
needs.  In  seeking  financial  support  and  educative  influences 
alike,  it  takes  from  everyone  according  to  his  ability,  but 
only  that  it  may  spend  itself  in  rendering  to  everyone 
according  to  his  need. 

A  progressive  school  system  is  no  longer  regarded  as 
fulfilling  its  duty  if  it  is  content  to  dispense  a  narrow  cur- 
riculum witliin  traditional  school  hours  to  children  of  school 
age.  School  hours  now  are  all  hours  in  which  someone 
can  be  found  to  be  served  with  knowledge,  training,  or 
wholesome  enjoyment.  School  days  are  any  days  of  the 
year.  School  pupils  are  "  all  the  children  of  all  the  people," 
regardless  of  health,  mentality,  poverty,  family  responsibili- 
ties, interest  of  the  parents  in  their  education,  or  any  other 
thing  but  their  need  of  schooling.  ICven  here  the  modern 
public  school  does  not  draw  the  line.  Regardless  of  age, 
the  schools  stand  ready  to  help  aliens  to  learn  our  language, 
the  unlettered  to  acquire  academic  knowledge  and  culture, 

324 


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y 

I^H^^iflA.  J2r4L:^ 

1 '  ^^^"'"^  "^^  ^^Wl 

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rslXC  tl.ASSKOOMS  AT  Mf.ltr 

Above,    The    Games   Club.    Boston,    Massachusetts.      I'.clow,    a    milbnery 
class,  Vocation:;!  Night  School.   Richmond,  \'irginia 


SCHOOL  EXTENSION  325 

mothers  to  learn  the  art  of  making  homes  and  wisely  bring- 
ing up  their  children  ;  to  extend  to  any  and  all  who  will 
accept  it  whatever  of  learning  or  skill  will  best  contribute  to 
the  elevation  and  enrichment  of  their  lives.  Economical 
efficiency  for  its  method  and  limitless  service  for  its  aim  — 
this  is  the  ideal  of  modern  public  education. 

An  expression  of  this  broader  ideal  comes  to  us  from 
Pittsburgh  : 

The  schools  of  the  people  should  give  to  the  children : 

Ample  provision  for  exercise  and  joyous  play. 

Buildings  simple,  but  stately ;  thoughtfully  planned,  skillfully 
built,  generously  equipped. 

A  course  of  study  offering  training  for  service  and  appreciation  ; 
presenting  in  the  order  of  their  importance  those  things  which  con- 
tribute to  a  strong,  healthy  body,  an  alert,  sure  mind,  a  fine, 
steadfast  spirit. 

I'hose  things  in  art  or  craft  which  develop  to  the  full  the  latent 
ability  of  each  one  to  serve  his  fellows  with  dexterous  hand,  a  lofty 
mind,  and  a  glad  heart,  rich  in  response  to  the  beautiful  and  noble 
in  life. 

Teachers  who  love  children  with  a  parent's  love  and  books  with 
a  scholar's  fondness;  who  find  beauty  and  joy  in  service;  are 
large  of  vision,  learners  always. 

A  training  which  leads  from  learning  and  doing  on  to  wisdom, 
to  high  ideals,  to  service  as  a  sacred  trust,  to  worthy  citizenship, 
to  character. 

And,  having  given  these  things  to  the  children,  the  schools  of 
the  peoi)le  .should  also  give  to  all  citizens  an  exalted,  neighborly 
life  more  abundant,  making  the  big  red  schoolhouse  a  radiating 
center  for  the  final  good  of  all  .Americans  and  then  for  the  world. 

Waste  through  an  idle  plant.  'Ihe  need  for  enlighten- 
ment is  too  widespread  and  the  school  plant  is  too  valuable 
for  it  to  stand  silent  and  idle  all  but  five  hours  a  day  in 
a  hundred  and  eighty  days  of  the  year.  The  long  vacation 
itself  has  proved  a  serious  problem.     A  costlv  school  plant 


326  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

stands  closed  and  useless ;  teachers,  out  of  employment, 
seek  temporary  occupation  or  go  home  and  most  unprofes- 
sionally  live  on  their  parents  ;  while  hundreds  of  children 
idly  roam  the  streets,  become  bad  company  for  each  other, 
and  forget  much  of  what  they  learned  during  the  past  year. 
Three  or  four  months  are  lost  in  this  idleness,  while  at  least 
another  month  is  lost  in  starting  and  stopping  the  terms. 

The  summer  close-down.  The  child  who  does  not  miss 
a  day  spends  less  than  one  sixth  of  his  waking  hours  at 
school,  while  the  average  member  of  the  school  is  there 
less  than  one  eighth  of  the  time  that  his  mind  is  active  and 
being  educated.  Commissioner  Claxton  estimates  that  less 
than  five  per  cent  of  school  children  go  away  from  home 
to  spend  the  summer,  less  than  ten  per  cent  are  engaged 
in  any  profitable  employment,  while  the  remaining  eighty- 
five  per  cent  are  in  the  streets,  alleys,  and  loafing  places 
without  occupation  or  guidance. 

Vacation  schools.  For  these  reasons  some  hundreds  of 
cities  are  now  conducting  "  vacation  schools."  In  most  cases 
the  provision  for  them  is  still  meager.  Teachers  are  few, 
and  attendance,  for  the  most  part,  consists  of  children  who 
are  seeking  to  make  up  individual  deficiencies  and  thus 
avoid  retardation.  These  quite  commonly  have  the  option 
of  falling  behind  their  grades  or  making  up  the  work  in 
vacation  school.  Special  provision  has  sometimes  been 
made  for  a  select  few  who  are  suflftciently  advanced  to  skip 
a  grade  by  means  of  the  summer  attendance.  To  this  ex- 
tent the  vacation  school  serves  to  even  up  the  irregularities 
of  promotion  in  the  regular  terms.  But  it  is  the  inevitable 
consequence  that  special  advantages  for  the  few  unusual 
pupils  will  ultimately  be  considered  the  right  of  the  many 
average  pupils.  I'hus  the  schools  of  the  summer  vacation 
months  are  coming  to  be  considered  the  right  of  every  child, 
and    rejnilar  classes  are   being   more   and   more   conducted 


SCHOOL  EXTENSION  327 

with  some  adjustment  of  credits  to  permit  summer  attend- 
ance to  count  in  accelerating  progress  through  the  grades. 

All-year  sessions.  It  is  but  a  step  from  this  to  the  full 
recognition  of  summer  work  as  part  of  the  school  year, 
making  an  all-year-round  school.  Newark,  New  Jersey,  the 
pioneer  in  this  movement,  has  found  its  all-year-school  plan 
exceedingly  popular  with  both  parents  and  children.  Al- 
though attendance  is  voluntar\-  in  summer  and  compulsory 
during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  84.  i  per  cent  of  the  regular- 
term  pupils  attended  the  summer  session,  and  the  average 
attendance  of  those  enrolled  was  higher  in  summer  than  in 
the  other  months,  l^oth  interest  and  scholarship  are  higher 
for  the  elimination  of  the  long  period  of  enforced  idleness. 
Failures  are  fewer  and  the  normal  rate  of  progress  covers 
as  much  in  three  years  as  is  accomplished  in  four  under 
the  regular  term  plan.  The  schools  are  cooler  and  more 
comfortable  than  the  average  home  or  the  street  where  the 
children  would  otherwise  spend  their  time,  and  the  regimen 
of  life  is  far  more  hygienic  ;  hence  the  health  of  children 
is  as  good  or  better.  Teachers  are  much  better  satisfied 
with  the  prospect  of  longer  employment  and  most  of  them 
are  applicants  for  it,  although,  as  with  the  pupils,  summer 
work  is  optional.  Instead  of  the  plan's  proving  an  additional 
expense  to  the  city,  it  has  been  found  an  actual  sa\ing.  It 
appears  that  the  whole  cost  of  educating  each  child  is 
decreased  about  ten  per  cent  under  this  plan.  It  costs  less 
to  give  a  child  an  elementary  education  in  six  years  than 
in  eight. 

Part-time  study.  To  meet  the  needs  of  the  many  older 
children  whose  time  is  required  to  help  support  themselves 
or  their  families,  there  are  being  perfected  in  several  cities 
various  part-time-study  plans.  This  arrangement  is  effected 
by  means  of  the  cooperation  between  school  authorities  and 
the  employers  of  youth.     Children  are   j^ermitted  to  attend 


328  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

school  part  of  the  day  and  work  the  other  part.  Groups 
are  organized  to  alternate  study  time  and  work  time  with 
other  groups,  thus  affording  regular  employment  and  regular 
instruction  for  the  children  as  well  as  a  uniform  supply  of 
pupils  for  the  schools  and  of  laborers  for  the  factories. 
The  groups  may  alternate  b\-  half-days,  by  days,  or  by 
weeks,  months,  or  terms.  Some  industries  require  help 
only  at  certain  hours  or  at  certain  seasons,  and  the  school 
seeks  to  adjust  itself  to  meet  this  need.  The  courses  also 
are  modified  in  collaboration  witli  the  employers  so  that 
the  instruction  received  is  more  or  less  successfully  corre- 
lated with  the  work  which  the  children  are  doing. 

This  cooperative  scheme  is  solving  several  problems  for 
the  general  good  of  all  concerned.  Instead  of  having  to 
contend  with  erratic  and  sometimes  unwise  legislation 
against  child  labor  and  with  the  opposition  of  all  friends  of 
the  school  and  of  childhood  ;  instead  of  having  to  employ 
only  the  defective,  delinquent,  or  desperately  poor  children 
who  cannot  or  will  not  attend  school  ;  instead  of  having  to 
connive  with  jwrents  and  children  to  falsify  age  statements 
and  employment  conditions  ;  employers  are  in  hearty  cooper- 
ation with  the  school  authorities  and  may  secure  a  reliable 
and  desirable  supply  of  child  helpers  by  direct  application 
to  the  schools.  Class  work  increases  the  interest  and  the 
intelligence  of  the  children  in  the  particular  employment 
which  they  have.  Parents,  instead  of  having  to  choose  be- 
tween the  education  of  the  children  or  their  assistance  in 
the  hard  jiroblem  of  making  ends  meet,  find  that  they  can 
get  both  advantages  under  restrictions  which  preserve  the 
health  and  welfare  of  the  children  and  at  the  same  time 
prepare  them  for  further  progress  and  higher  wages. 
Schools  secure  the  cooperation  and  friendly  support  of 
many  industrial  forces  which  have  hitherto  been  largely 
antagonistic.     Needy  parents  and  pupils  gain  a  new  interest 


SCHOOL  EXTENSION  329 

in  the  school  when  this  proves  the  surest  way  to  a  job  and 
the  only  means  of  securing  steady  employment  during  the 
school  age.  School  lessons  are  vital  when  related  to  the 
problems  which  affect  this  week's  pay  envelope. 

The  part-time  plan  is  developing  most  rapidly  in  the 
manufacturing  centers,  but  is  also  well  adapted  for  farming 
and  trucking  sections,  for  large  retail  business  communities, 
for  messenger  and  delivery  service,  and  can  be  utilized 
wherever  numbers  of  children  are  employed.  In  Chicago 
the  retail  druggists  have  a  successful  coordination  whereby 
high-school  boys  may  spend  a  part  of  their  time  in  phar- 
macy apprentice  w'ork  and  receive  credit  for  the  same  toward 
graduation  in  a  special  pre-pharmacy  course.  In  general, 
children  are  benefited  by  a  reasonable  balance  between 
academic  instruction  and  the  exercise,  training,  and  respon- 
sibility of  productive  economic  activity.  Idling  is  the  bane 
of  childhood,  while  work  under  natural,  industrial  regula- 
tions is  one  of  its  blessings.  It  is  well  that  the  industrial- 
education  movement  which  is  turning  our  schools  into 
shops  should  likewise  turn  the  shops  into  schools,  and  still 
better  that  it  combine  them  both  into  a  partnership  for 
mutual  benefit  and   for  the  welfare  of  the  child. 

Evening  schools.  Those  who  must  labor  all  da\-  are  also 
the  care  of  our  modern  public  schools,  h'or  them,  regard- 
less of  age,  arc  provided  evening  schools  in  which  anything 
may  be  taught  for  which  there  is  a  demand.  From  the 
"Moonlight  Schools"  of  the  Kentucky  mountains,  where 
the  fundamentals  are  taught  to  three  generations  of  learners 
at  the  same  time,  to  the  night  high  schools  and  vocational 
classes  of  the  most  progressive  cities  every  sort  of  ambition 
for  more  knowledge  or  skill  is  provided  for  in  evening 
classes,  free  or  at  a  nominal  cost  for  materials.  Salesman- 
ship, journalism,  art,  music  ;  academic  instruction  of  eveiy 
sort  and  grade  from  i)rinier  classes  for  non-1'jiglish-spoaking 


330  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

aliens  to  college-entrance  requirements ;  printing,  shoe- 
making,  carpentry,  plumbing,  mechanics,  and  every  craft ; 
domestic  arts  and  science  ;  motherhood  and  sex-instruction  ; 
swimming,  gymnastics,  and  dancing ;  military  drill,  wireless 
telegraphy,  and  aeronautics,  —  all  are  to  be  had  for  the 
seeking,  though  not  all  in  any  one  city  as  yet. 

The  continuation  school  firmly  established.  Some  cities 
are  still  dwarfed  by  lack  of  vision  on  the  part  of  school 
boards  and  councils,  A  few  of  them  have  but  little  more 
than  outgrown  the  conception  of  the  public  school  as  a 
necessary  evil,  closely  akin  to  the  poorhouse  and  free  hospi- 
tal. All  are  still  crippled  for  lack  of  funds.  But  led  by 
school  superintendents  of  breadth  and  foresight  and  backed 
by  progressive  citizens,  welfare  organizations,  woman's  clubs, 
trades  councils,  and  business  associations,  many  sorts  of  con- 
tinuation schools  which  were  regarded  as  distorted  visions 
a  few  years  ago  are  now  firmly  established  by  both  law 
and  custom  and  are  rapidly  spreading  to  every  section  of 
the  country^  and  every  class  of  pupils.  Pennsylvania  has  a 
law  limiting  the  labor  of  children  under  sixteen  to  fifty-one 
hours  per  week,  of  w^hich  eight  hours  must  be  spent  in  a 
continuation  school.  Wisconsin  has  a  similar  law,  and  other 
states  are  getting  into  line  on  like  plans. 

The  National  Association  of  Manufacturers  expresses  the 
industrial  education  ideal  for  the  public  schools  in  the  fol- 
lowing program,  which  they  claim  is  favored  by  educators, 
manufacturers,  and  representatives  of  labor. 

1.  Two-years'  and  three-years'  apprenticeship  courses  elective 
for  children  fourteen  years  of  age  and  over  who  have  had  the 
equivalent  of  six  years  of  the  elementary  school  ;  with  shop 
teachers  selected  from  the  industries,  and  the  instruction  so  coor- 
dinated with  local  industries  that  graduates  of  the  courses  may  be 
credited  with  substantial  allowances  on  their  apprenticeships. 

2.  Elective  vocational  courses  for  high-school  pupils. 


1  ITTING  THK  SCHOdl.S  TO  MISFIT  PUPILS 
Trade  classes  in  the  Prevocational  School,  Riclimond.  X'irs^inia 


SCHOOL  EXTENSION  331 

3.  Evening  continuation  classes  for  adult  workers,  and  day 
continuation  classes  for  employed  workers  under  sixteen  years 
of  age. 

4.  Practical  training  on  real  work  and  a  commercial  product. 

5.  Control  by  a  committee  of  representatives  of  employers  and 
skilled  employees  under  the  direction  of,  and  responsible  to,  the 
regular  board  of  public  education,  insuring  close  coordination 
between  the  industrial  schools  and  the  regular  public  schools. 

Vocational  guidance.  Another  phase  of  the  school's 
responsibility  now  rapidly  growing  in  importance  and  pos- 
sibilities is  that  known  as  "vocational  guidance."  At  first 
this  was  confined  to  recommending  to  individual  children 
the  sort  of  higher  school  or  college  which  the  adviser 
thought  they  should  attend  or  the  sort  of  occupation  which 
he  thought  they  would  engage  in  most  successfully.  '"  This 
conception  is  rapidly  passing,  however,"  says  Commissioner 
Claxton,  "and  among  the  leaders  of  the  vocational-guidance 
movement  the  chief  function  of  their  work  is  now  regarded 
as  the  study  of  vocational  conditions  and  opportunities,  and 
the  making  of  the  resulting  information  available  to  boys 
and  girls.  The  most  important  service  that  can  be  rendered 
the  individual  youth,  under  the  name  of  vocational  guidance, 
is  to  set  him  to  thinking,  at  the  proper  time,  about  the  prob- 
lem of  choosing  a  life  work  as  a  problem  to  be  seriously 
faced  and  prepared  for  —  to  make  him  fully  conscious  of  its 
existence  as  a  problem  to  be  solved,  and  aware  of  the  sources 
of  data  having  any  bearing  on  its  solution." 

The  movement,  however,  is  being  extended  to  the  actual 
assisting  of  pupils  to  secure  eniploNincnt,  (he  superxision  of 
the  conditions  under  which  the}'  labor,  and  the  advising  with 
them  both  before  and  after  they  leave  school  regarding  all 
matters  jiertaining  to  their  em])lo\'ment.  A  considerable  body 
of  jjractical  literature  and  some  scientific  methods  of  deter- 
mining fitness  for  certain  occupations  have  been  developed, 


332  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

and  in  certain  cities  expert  vocational  advice  which  would 
be  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  ordinary  teacher  is  provided. 

Center  of  community  life.  The  efforts  of  the  schools  to 
enrich  life  do  not  end  even  with  their  extension  to  every 
phase  of  instruction  which  can  be  accomplished  within  and 
without  its  walls.  Whatever  enters  largely  into  the  life  of 
the  community,  whether  work,  play,  or  amusement,  if  it  can 
be  taken  over  and  by  wise  direction  and  purer  environment 
be  ennobled  and  made  more  worthy,  that  is  a  function  of 
the  school ;  that  h  a  legitimate  and  wise  use  for  the  school 
buildings  and  funds  which  are  the  property  of  the  people, 
contributed  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people. 

After  the  exactions  of  daily  toil  people  must  have  a 
period  of  relaxation,  of  personal  freedom  and  pleasure,  of 
enjoyment.  They  crave  companionship  and  the  intercourse 
of  social  groups.  It  is  this  need  of  humanity  which  the 
saloons,  dance-halls,  gambling  places,  and  low  amusements 
have  seized  upon  as  their  opportunity.  It  is  the  satisfaction 
of  this  social  and  recreational  need  which  the  schools,  with 
cheering  success,  are  now  reaching  out  to  lift  to  a  higher 
plane.  Many  millions  of  profitable  and  delightful  eve- 
nings arc  now  spent  annually  in  recreational  activities  in  the 
public-school  buildings.  These  include  social  and  literary 
clubs  and  gatherings,  lectures,  concerts,  art  exhibits,  gym- 
nastics, dancing,  parties,  dramatics,  athletics  —  everything 
that  meets  a  social  need.  Moving  pictures  of  a  high  order 
at  a  nominal  price  and  free  to  children  are  a  most  popular 
addition  to  this  evening  service.  Milwaukee  has  installed 
a  large  number  of  the  best  type  of  billiard  tables  in  her 
public  schools. 

Reports  received  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  indicate  that 
somewhat  over  500  cities  held  after-school  occasions  of  a 
social  or  recreational  character  during  the  school  year  end- 
ing June,    1916.    In  about   150  of  these  cities  there  were 


SCHOOL  EXTENSION  333 

paid  school  extension,  workers  other  than  teachers  in  the 
regular  night  schools.  In  about  the  same  number  of  cities 
there  were  some  schools  in  which  the  evening  occasions 
averaged  once  a  week  or  oftener  during  a  period  of  thirty 
weeks.  School  buildings  were  used  as  polling  places  in 
133  cities  and  for  holding  primaries  in  112  cities.  The 
Bureau  regards  these  figures  as  an  understatement  of  the 
actual  facts.  This  does  not  include  at  all  the  widespread 
use  of  the  buildings  in  a  corresponding  way  in  the  country 
districts  and  small  towns. 

Supervision  of  social  activities.  .Supervision  of  these 
community-center  activities  by  competent  persons  is  neces- 
sary, and  usually  there  must  be  guidance  and  instruction  at 
the  first,  though  the  aim  is  to  make  them  unhampered  and 
to  develop  as  much  initiative  in  the  participants  as  possible. 
The  people  themselves  recognize  the  moral  and  uplifting 
atmosphere  of  the  school  and  will  not  tolerate  there  the 
objectionable  sort  of  language  and  conduct  they  would  freely 
laugh  over  elsewhere.  The  very  environment  tends  to  lift 
their  amusements  to  a  higher  plane.  The  following  regula- 
tions of  the  school  board  of  Joliet,  Illinois,  are  typical  of  the 
liberal  and  sane  provisions  of  many  cities. 

In  order  that  tlic  jniblic  school  plant  may  serve  a  wider  com- 
munity use,  the  board  of  school  inspectors  will  bear  the  expense 
of  lighting,  heat,  and  janitor  service  wlicn  the  school  is  used  for 
the  following  jnirposes : 

1.  Adult  clubs  or  organizations  for  the  discussion  of  educational. 
civic,  and  community  problems. 

2.  Public  lectures,  entertainments,  t)r  indoor  recreational  or 
educational  activities. 

3.  Club  work  among  young  people  —  literary,  musical,  dramatic, 
social  —  under  supervision  arranged  by  the  school  authorities. 

4.  Political  discussions  may  be  permitted  when  announced  in 
advance  and  equal  opportunity  given  for  presentation  of  both  sides 
of  the  question,  in  accord  with  the  American  spirit  of  fair  play. 


334  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

The  above  activities  must  Ix'  determined  and  controlled  by  a 
free  organization  of  patrons  and  teachers  of  the  community.  The 
present  rule  barring  the  use  of  tobacco  on  school  premises  must 
be  respected. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Draw  up  plans  and,  so  far  as  practicable,  make  estimates  of 
the  cost  of  introducing  the  following  extension  features  into  your 
school  system  : 

(a)  Eight  or  ten  weeks  of  vacation  schools  for  deficient  pupils  only. 
(l>)  Same  for  all  pupils. 

(c)  Part-time  classes  to  correlate  with  any  local  industries  which 
employ  children  under  eighteen  years  of  age. 

(d)  Evening  classes  for  foreigners  learning  to  speak  English. 

(e)  Evening  classes  in  such  industrial  training  as  may  seem 
desirable. 

(/)  Utilizing  the  schools  for  and  supervising  community  literarj' 
exercises  —  games,  dancing,  etc.  —  for  groups  of  different  ages. 
(^)  Farmers',  workmen's,  or  mothers'  clubs,  etc. 
(/i)  Musical,  military,  or  other  training. 

2.  Prepare  a  course  of  study  for  eight  weeks'  vacation  school 
which  would  meet  the  needs  for  the  deficient  pupils  of  the  grammar 
grades. 

3.  What  plan  would  you  adopt  for  persuading  the  people  of  the 
importance  of  such  opportunities  if  provided  and  for  getting  them 
to  make  use  of  them  ? 

4.  Make  general  recommendations  as  to  such  of  these  extension 
activities  as  you  think  should  be  undertaken  under  the  conditions 
which  prevail. 

5.  What  industries  in  your  community  are  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  justify  adaptation  of  the  school  work  to  them  in  the  way 
of  vocational  training?  Which  would  justify  the  part-time  study 
correlation  ? 

READINGS 

Allen.    Civics  and  Health,  Part  III. 
BuTTERFiELi).    Chapters  in  Social  I'rogress. 
Carver.    Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  chap.  vi. 


SCHOOL  EXTENSION  335 

CuiiiiiCRiv.    Rural  Life  and  Education,  chap.  v. 

Curtis.    Play  and  Recreation,  Part  I\'. 

DuTTO.v.    School  Management,  chaps,  i,  xv-xviii. 

DuTTOX  and  Sxeddkn.    Administration  of  Public  Education  in  United 

States,  chap.  xxxi. 
Egglesto.x  and  Brl'EKE.    The  Work  of  the  Rural  School,  chaps,  ii,  v, 

,    vii. 
Gakher.    Current  Activities  and  Influences  in  Education,  chap.  ii. 
HoLLiSTER.   The  Administration  of  Education  in  a  Democracy,  chap.  xx. 
King.    Education  for  Social  Efficiency,  chaps.  .\vi,  xvii. 
Le.witt.    Examples  of  Industrial  Education,  chaps,  x-xvi. 
Perrv.    Unused  Recreational  Resources  of  the  Average  Community 

(Pamphlet,  Russell  Sage  Foundation). 
Perrv.    Wider  Use  of  the  School  Plant. 
Puffer.    Vocational  Guidance. 
Seerley.    The  Country  School,  chap.  vii. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletins 

Bulletin  No.  20.   191 2,  "Readjustment  of  the  Rural  High  School 

to  the  Needs  of  the  Community  "  (Brown). 
Bulleiin    A'o.    4,    191 4,    "The    School    and    the    Start    in    Life" 

(Bloomfield). 
Bulletin  No.  /j,   191 5,  "The  Schoolhouse  as  the  Polling  Place" 

(Ward). 
Bulletin  No.  2S,  1915.  "The  Extension  of  Public  Education  "(Perry). 
Bulletin  N^o.jS,  191 5,  "The  University  and  the  Municipality." 
Bulletin  No.  41,    191 5,    "Significant   School   Extension   Records" 

(Perry). 
Bulletin  A'o.  21,  1916,  "Vocational  Secondary  Education." 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
SPECIAL  DAYS  AND  OCCASIONS 

A  teaching  device.  The  special  day  is  a  teaching  device. 
As  such,  its  exercises  should  consist  in  the  pupils'  activity. 
Its  success  will  depend  on  the  thoroughness  with  which  it  is 
planned,  the  clearness  with  which  the  ai^Ji  is  kept  in  view, 
the  efficiency  of  the  motivation,  and  the  persistency  with 
which  the  lessons  taught  are  followed  up  and  applied.  The 
purpose  of  the  occasion  is  to  focus  upon  one  particularly 
important  idea  all  the  thought  and  efforts  of  the  day,  thereby 
launching  that  idea  into  the  current  of  the  child's  experience 
and  interests  with  an  impetus  that  will  insure  its  becoming 
a  factor  in  his  life's  ideals  and  attitudes.  An  effective  domi- 
nant ideal,  such  as  is  sought  through  the  special-day  exer- 
cises, involves  (i)  the  vivid  and  attractive  presentation  of 
a  body  of  relevant  knoivledge  together  with  (2)  the  arousing 
of  appropriate  emotional  responses.  Neither  knowledge  get- 
ting nor  any  emotional  state  of  permanent  worth  in  conduct 
can  be  attained  by  a  passive  pupil.  The  speeial-day  cxereisc 
is  a  means  of  intensifying  cdneative  activity. 

Any  truly  great  cause  is  as  worthy  of  the  time  and  effort 
devoted  to  such  special  occasion  as  are  the  commonplace 
topics  of  the  course.  Instead  of  being  introduced  at  the 
sacrifice  of  regular  lessons,  if  properly  correlated  it  should 
most  effectively  motivate  the  study  of  the  common  subjects. 
Geography  and  history  are  vitalized  by  anniversary  celebra- 
tions; science,  hygiene,  and  economic  studies  by  Arbor  Day, 
Bird  Day,  Health  Day,  and  similar  events ;  literature  by 
the  birthdays  of  authors  ;  while  every  suph  occasion  gives 

336 


SPECIAL  DAYS  AND  OCCASIONS  337 

unparalleled  opportunity  for  training  in  the  formal  studies,  — 
composition,  spelling,  reading,  and  perhaps  arithmetic.  Public 
speaking,  singing,  dramatics,  and  some  other  accomplish- 
ments have  little  genuine  motivation  except  on  such  special 
occasions.  The  mere  breaking  into  the  low-pressure  monot- 
ony of  daily  work  is  often  in  itself  a  most  profitable  circum- 
stance. Each  such  occasion  should  be  made  to  contribute 
genuine  economy  and  efficiency  to  the  regular  work  besides 
affording  its  own  peculiar  values.  It  may  sometimes  be  true 
that  special-day  exercises  are  a  waste  of  valuable  time.  If 
so,  that  fault  is  with  the  utilizing  and  not  with  the  possibili- 
ties of  the  occasion.  It  is  our  purpose  here  not  to  discuss 
methods  of  making  these  special  occasions  contribute  to 
general  educative  values,  but  to  insist  that  they  should  do  so. 

Occasion  gives  teaching  aim.  As  to  the  idea  or  cause  for 
which  the  day  itself  stands,  the  aim  will  vary  with  the  par- 
ticular occasion.  There  are  the  birthdays  of  national  states- 
men and  heroes,  in  which  the  aim  is  to  exalt  in  the  minds 
of  all  the  people  the  virtues  which  these  men  exemplified, 
to  endear  to  each  successive  generation  the  causes  for  which 
they  stood,  to  vivify  the  historic  facts  which  cluster  about 
them,  and  to  dignify  the  country's  historv  bv  enriching  the 
general  knowledge  of  its  great  events  and  crises.  Vet 
how  often  is  Washington's  Birthday  "observed"  by  merely 
closing  the  schools  and  making  it  a  day  of  idleness  or  of 
mere  pleasure-seeking. 

There  are  the  birthdays  of  state  and  local  heroes  of  war 
or  of  peace,  of  industry  or  of  ideals.  Individuals  conspicuous 
for  any  virtue  or  achievement  which  may  be  held  up  for  the 
admiration  of  the  people  and  emulation  of  the  youth  are  fit 
subjects  for  such  special  honor.  The  proximity  of  their 
homes,  scenes  of  their  labors,  or  results  of  their  achieve- 
ments should  help  to  make  the  exercises  concrete  and  more 
effective.    We  say  often  that  we  seek  to  honor  the  great 


338  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

ones  whose  achievements  we  celebrate.  But  the  dead  cannot 
and  the  truly  great  would  not  be  lionored  except  through 
our  realizing  their  ideals  and  purposes,  by  our  continuing  the 
work  which  they  began,  executing  wisely  what  they  planned, 
and  bringing  to  fruit  in  the  lives  of  the  young  the  seeds  of 
nobility  which  they  strove  to  plant, 

(jreat  authors  are  honored  by  making  their  personalities 
dear  and  their  works  familiar  to  the  new  generations  of 
readers.  They  can  live  only  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of 
people.  By  projecting  what  is  noble  of  their  works  into  the 
lives  of  pupils  we  immortalize  them  and  ennoble  mankind. 
The  public  schools  have  a  rare  opportunity  to  serve  humanity 
by  using  rightly  the  birthdays  of  the  best  authors,  but  not 
by  making  such  occasions  perfunctory. 

Honoring  or  dishonoring.  The  anniversary  celebrations 
of  great  occasions  of  every  sort  bring  each  its  own  oppor- 
tunity for  instilling  patriotism,  love  of  state  or  town,  loyalty 
to  some  cause  or  ideal  of  supreme  importance.  An  occasion 
which  stands  for  no  high  ideal  is  unworthy  of  celebration, 
and  a  celebration  which  does  not  stand  for  that  ideal  is 
unworthy  of  the  occasion.  It  is  a  national  dishonor  that  the 
Fourth  of  July  became  so  largely  a  day  of  mere  noise,  reck- 
lessness, and  riotous  pleasure-seeking  until  rescued  in  some 
degree  by  the  campaign  for  a  '"  sane  I'ourth  "  ;  or  that 
Thanksgiving  Day  to  many  is  a  symbol  of  licensed  gluttony. 
It  is  Pagan  that  Easter  should  be  impatiently  awaited  as  the 
signal  for  social  excesses  in  reaction  from  onerous  restric- 
tions of  Lent.  It  is  worse  than  heathen  that  Christmas 
should  become  a  day  of  mere  hilarity  and  dissipation. 

Recreation  is  not  celebration.  All  who  work  need  days 
of  vacation,  which  means  da}s  of  emptiness,  of  doing  noth- 
ing. We  need  days  of  relaxation,  of  letting  down,  of  loosen- 
ing rigidity  and  tension  —  of  rational  "  cutting  loose  "  if  you 
choose.   We  need  days  of  recreation,  of  re-creation,  renewing 


SPECIAL  DAYS  AND  OCCASIONS  339 

vitality  and  strength,  of  upbuilding.  But  these  are  quite 
different  from  days  of  celebration,  of  making  someone  or 
something  cclcbcr — famous,  renowned.  They  are  very 
different  from  holidays  which  are  holy-days.  The  travesty 
on  civilization  is  not  in  the  wretched  misuse  of  the  words, 
but  the  tragic  misuse  of  the  days.  A  mark  of  every  de- 
generate age  and  nation  has  been  a  great  multiplicity  of 
feasts  and  fasts  in  the  name  of  patriotism  or  religion,  but 
devoted  to  license.  Let  it  be  a  sacred  trust  of  the  public- 
school  teachers  throughout  our  land  to  make  sure  that  every 
day  which  is  observed  in  the  name  of  any  noble  cause  shall 
leave  the  children  of  their  schools  a  little  nobler  through  a 
better  appreciation  of  that  cause.  Increase  "so  far  as  need 
be  the  days  of  relaxation  and  vacation,  but  let  hol}--days  be 
holy  to  some  holy  cause  and  let  celebrations  increase  the 
renown  of  some  noble  person  or  event.  Holidays  are  not 
hollow  days. 

Relative  importance.  Special  days  are  set  aside  by  various 
authorities  in  the  interest  of  sundry  propaganda.  It  is  rea- 
sonably sure  that  these  causes  are  all  worthy.  The  danger 
is  that  in  attempting  to  observe  them  all,  the  celebrations 
will  become  too  common  or  too  commonplace  to  be  effective. 
Many  of  them  are  suitably  honored  by  being  made  the 
special  theme  for  morning  exercises  or  the  correlation 
center  for  the  day's  reading  and  composition  work.  Others 
will  justify  the  interruption  of  the  daily  schedule  and  will 
warrant  more  or  less  elaborate  preparation  and  public  exer- 
cises. Not  merely  the  importance  of  the  cause  itself  but 
the  need  of  accenting  it  in  the  life  of  the  pupils  and  of 
the  particular  community  must  determine  the  degree  of  con- 
sideration to  be  given  it.  Arbor  Day  needs  emphasis  in 
the  treeless  plains  and  the  barren  boom-towns  or  factory 
settlements,  but  not  in  beautifully  shaded  suburbs  or  in  the 
crowded  city  where  there  is  no  chance  to  plant  a  tree. 


340  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Form  and  aim.  Some  of  these  special-day  causes,  such  as 
Peace  Day  and  Flag  Day,  seek  only  a  sentimental  attitude. 
Others,  like  Arbor  Day,  Bird  Day,  Good-Roads  Da}-,  or 
Health  Day,  may  seek  to  have  the  sentiment  ripen  immedi- 
ately into  concrete  efforts.  Still  others  arc  intended  strictly 
to  initiate  some  practical  movement  for  the  community 
good.  Such  might  be  a  Clean-Up  Day,  City-Beautiful  Day, 
Better-Crops  Day,  Get-Acquainted  Day,  Fire-Protection  Day, 
and  the  like.  Some  of  these  occasions  seek  to  educate  the 
children  only,  and  some  to  influence  children  and  parents 
together.  Some  are  local  in  interest  and  aim ;  some  are 
as  widespread  as  the  nation  or  civilization.  Some  are 
among  the  means  by  which  the  school  reaches  out  for 
varying  materials  with  which  to  enrich  its  instruction  of 
the  children ;  others  are  means  whereby  the  school  ex- 
tends its  activities  and  resources  for  the  benefit  of  all 
the   people. 

Manifestly  the  nature  and  arrangement  of  the  exercises 
must  vary  quite  decidedly  according  to  which  of  these 
numerous  aims  may  prevail  in  any  particular  occasion.  A 
great  abundance  of  suggestions  and  materials,  arranged  in 
complete  detail  for  such  celebrations,  is  afforded  in  numer- 
ous government  and  state  bulletins,  in  educational  periodi- 
cals and  books,  and  in  the  publications  of  the  propagandists 
supporting  the  movements.  The  all-important  thing  for  the 
teacher  is  to  keep  clearly  in  mind  the  aim  and  make  sure 
that  what  is  done  contributes  to  that  aim  and  not  merely 
to  "  making  the  occasion  a  success." 

Resulting  attitudes.  One  must  be  careful  that  a  wrong 
emotional  attitude  is  not  aroused.  Arbor  Day  was  intended 
to  develop  a  tree-loving,  tree-sparing,  and  tree-planting 
people.  In  the  first  enthusiasm  and  general  extension  of 
the  celebrations  thousands  of  school  yards  were  filled  with 
trees  stuck  in  without  plan  or  care  and  destined  to  die.    The 


SPECIAL  DAYS  AND  OCCASIONS  341 

inevitable  result  in  such  cases  was  that  tree-planting  became 
a  travesty ;  trees  were  wastefully  destroyed,  and  lessons  in 
neglect  and  in  the  folly  of  planting  trees  were  instilled. 

Peace  Day  should  result  in  a  genuine  love  of  righteous 
peace  and  horror  of  needless  war.  Flag  Day  should  inspire 
a  reverence  for  the  symbol  of  the  nation  and  a  willingness 
to  live  or  to  die  for  the  glory  of  the  country.  Road  Day 
should  contribute  tangibly  to  producing  a  nation  of  road- 
builders.  Says  Commissioner  Claxton,  "  The  roads  are  not 
built,  because  people  do  not  understand  their  value  nor 
comprehend  how  much  beauty  they  would  contribute  to 
the  country  and  how  much  pleasure  to  life.  It  is  largely  a 
matter  of  sentiment  and  ideals.  These  ideals  are  most  easily 
created  in  childhood.  What  one  would  have  in  the  State 
of  to-morrow  must  be  put  into  the  schools  of  to-day."  The 
same  may  be  said  of  all  great  causes. 

Reaching  the  patrons.  Any  important  movement  for  local 
progress  or  civic  betterment,  provided  it  is  nonpartisan, 
nonsectarian,  and  strictly  for  the  community's  good,  may 
be  the  subject  of  special  school  exercises.  The  more  local 
and  pressing  the  need,  the  more  vital  will  be  the  study  and 
discussion  aroused.  Tlie  fact  that  the  school  exercise  does 
not  seem  primarily  an  attempt  to  teach  the  parents  gives 
the  teacher  better  opportunity  for  community  service  and 
community  leadership.  It  may  be  presumption,  and  would 
probably  be  so  regarded,  to  invite  the  citizens  to  school  to 
be  instructed  how  to  make  their  homes  sanitary.  But  they 
will  gladly  come  to  hear  their  own  children  read  essays, 
ciuotations,  and  scfcntific  articles ;  to  hear  debates,  songs, 
and  dramatizations  ;  to  study  exhibits  and  hear  addresses 
of  experts;  all  bearing  toward  the  same  end. 

Patrons'  Da)-  is  a  means  of  getting  the  parents  to  the 
school —  sometimes  with  the  aim  of  showing  them  the  prog- 
ress  the   children    cue    making   bv   exercises   and    exhibits ; 


342  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

sometimes  for  discussion  of  school  problems  to  the  end  of  a 
better  understanding  and  cooperation  ;  sometimes  to  get  them 
to  contribute  time  or  money  for  some  school  improvement ; 
often  for  all  of  these  ends.  Where  there  is  a  domestic- 
science  class,  lunches  or  refreshments  are  usually  served 
by  the  girls.  Brief  talks  by  school  officials  and  patrons 
tend  to  crystallize  sentiment  favorably  to  the  improvement 
of  school  facilities.  It  is  not  so  much  what  is  said  as  that 
the  people  are  talking  themselves  into  school  enthusiasm. 
Very  often  these  meetings  are  the  means  of  initiating  the 
movement  for  new  buildings  or  other  extensive  developments. 

Special  weeks.  Under  some  conditions  it  is  advisable  to 
devote  a  week  instead  of  a  day  to  certain  ideals  or  policies. 
In  a  school  of  small  resources  many  feeble  efforts  had  been 
made  without  appreciable  result  to  get  industrial  work  under 
way.  An  "  Industrial  Week "  was  planned.  All  regular 
work  was  either  based  upon  or  v.aivcd  in  favor  of  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  manual  work  which  were  being  inaugurated. 
Meetings  of  older  people  were  held  nearly  every  day  and 
evening.  Money  was  contributed,  equipment  secured,  and 
the  work  placed  on  a  firm  footing  for  future  development. 

Practical  points.  A  few  practical  suggestions  will  close 
our  discussion  of  special  days. 

1.  Go  to  headquarters  and  get  the  best  plans  and  mate- 
rials. The  United  States  Bureau  of  I'Mucation,  the  state 
departments,  and  the  central  offices  of  the  agencies  pro- 
moting the  causes  usually  furnish  these  free  of  charge. 

2.  Begin  in  time  for  considerable  preliminary  work  by 
the  children.  The  occasion  is  the  inceiTtive,  but  the  work- 
ing up  to  it  is  the  means  of  getting  the  children  in  thorough 
sympathy  with  the  cause.  There  should  be  more  or  less 
gathering  of  data  from  the  libraries,  preparing  of  papers, 
orations,  and  debates,  drilling  in  songs  and  marches,  and 
arranging  of  exhibits,  diagrams,  and  mottoes. 


SPECIAL  DAYS  AND  OCCASIONS  343 

3.  Enlist  the  cooperation  of  representative  citizens  by 
giving  tiiem  some  part  in  either  the  program  or  the  arrange- 
ments. Remember  that  getting  an  individual  identified  with 
a  movement  persuades  him  far  more  effectually  than  any  sort 
of  argument.    It  also  helps  powerfully  to  persuade  others. 

4.  In  selecting  children  to  participate  in  such  exercises 
use  (a)  those  who  have  the  ability  to  do  well  what  they 
undertake,  but  also  {/?)  those  who  will  bring  into  sympathy 
the  parents  and  others  whom  you  are  particularly  interested 
in  reaching.  One  feels  identified  with  a  cause  in  which 
his  child  is  taking  part.  But  this  usually  necessitates  group 
exercises  or  dramatization  in  which  many  oi  mediocre  ability 
may  participate. 

5.  Have  abundant  action  and  movement.  Short  and 
striking  speeches  driving  home  one  point  at  a  time  are 
more  effective  for  children  and  for  most  people  than  long 
and  logical  addresses.  Plays  and  music  will  interest  many 
whom  recitations  and  essays  will  bore.  Graphic  representa- 
tions and  dramatizations  will  be  remembered  when  the  logic 
of  addresses  is  forgotten.  Most  people  favor  a  cause  when 
they  are  pleased  with  its  presentation  rather  than  because 
they  understand  it. 

6.  Avoid  arousing  enthusiasm  to  no  purpose.  If  some- 
thing is  to  be  done,  get  it  started  when  interest  is  high. 
P'ollow  up  the  lesson  of  the  day  with  frequent  references 
and  applications  in  the  work  of  the  classroom. 

School  fairs.  The  school  fair  is  a  recent  development 
fraught  with  incalculable  values  in  stimulating  school  work 
and  public  interest.  It  is  organized  much  as  anv  other  fair, 
with  contests,  exhibits,  and  prizes.  The  existing  school 
administrative  machinery  makes  the  planning  and  organ- 
ization a  relatively  simjile  matter.  It  may  be  held  in  con- 
junction with  an  agricultural  or  other  fair,  but  it  is  better 
to  let  the  schools  have  the  entire  stage  to  themselves,    A 


344  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

county  or  similar  territory  not  too  large  for  children  and 
people  generally  to  come  from  the  remotest  part  should 
be  included  in  the  territory  of  the  fair. 

A  fund  for  prizes  is  readily  contributed  by  school  boards, 
county  commissioners  or  supcrxisors,  business  and  industrial 
organizations,  school  leagues,  merchants,  and  individuals.  A 
catalogue  is  issued  as  far  in  advance  as  possible,  designating 
the  contests  in  which  prizes  are  offered,  the  conditions  of 
each  contest,  the  classes  of  competitors,  and  such  rules  as 
may  be  necessary.  Experience  shows  that  a  few  clear  rules 
are  all  that  is  desirable.  The  catalogue  may  contain  adver- 
tising sufficient  to  pay  for  itself. 

Only  bona  fide  pupils  of  the  public  schools  of  the  fair 
district  should  be  permitted  to  contest.  These  should  be 
divided  into  three  classes  :  primary,  grammar,  and  high- 
school  pupils,  with  separate  contests  for  eacli,  though  pupils 
of  a  lower  class  may  compete  against  those  in  any  higher 
class.  Some  special  prizes  should  also  be  offered  for  first- 
grade  and  second-grade  pupils.  Group  work  may  be  encour- 
aged by  offering  prizes  for  group  projects  more  difficult  and 
pretentious  than  would  ordinarily  be  possible  for  an  indi- 
vidual. Surprisingly  fine  results  in  academic  and  manual 
work  have  been  attained  in  this  way.  By  offering  prizes 
for  a  wide  range  of  achievements  children  of  every  type 
are  encouraged.  Academic  excellence  and  every  sort  of 
handiwork,  drawing,  cooking,  sewing,  declamation,  music, 
athletics,  gardening,  and  even  health  hai)its  and  regular 
attendance  may  be  effectively  stimulated.  Work  done  in 
school  or  out  of  school  should  be  included.  Particular  em- 
phasis should  be  placed  by  means  of  moie  and  larger  prizes 
on  any  particular  accomplishments  in  which  the  schools  are 
weak.  Whatever  you  would  see  developed  in  the  schools,  put 
it  in  the  prize  list.  Instruction  of  almost  any  kind  will  find  its 
way  into  the  school  when  the  children  arc  sufficiently  anxious 


SPECIAL  DAYS  AND  OCCASIONS  345 

for  it.  The  children  will  find  someone  in  school  or  out  of  it 
to  show  them  how  to  do  the  thing  for  which  a  prize  is  offered. 

Power  of  prizes.  A  prize  of  two  to  five  dollars  will 
literally  put  hundreds  of  children  determinedly  and  per- 
sistently to  work  on  most  difficult  tasks.  The  prize-winning 
performance  at  one  fair  is  taken  by  all  the  contestants  as 
the  standard  which  they  must  excel  at  the  next  fair. 
Standards  of  attainment  advance  by  surprising  leaps  from 
one  annual  fair  to  another,  l^arcnts  soon  decide  that  if 
other  children  can  accomplish  such  work  as  is  exhibited, 
their  own  shall  not  be  denied  the  facilities  or  kind  of 
instruction  that  will  give  them  like  opportunities. 

The  objections  to  prize-giving  previously  mentioned  are 
not  serious  under  the  conditions  of  a  fair  in  which  many 
schools  are  contesting.  Particularly  unobjectionable  are  prizes 
offered  for  group  projects  —  those  offered  to  schools  or  to 
grades  or  given  for  general  excellence. 

The  parade.  The  parade  is  among  the  most  intensely 
interesting  features  of  such  an  occasion.  With  band  play- 
ing, colors  flying,  school  yells  and  songs  much  in  evidence, 
there  is  developed  an  enthusiasm  and  an  esprit  de  corps 
among  the  children  and  a  thrill  of  pride  among  the  parents 
which  perhaps  notliing  else  in  school  life  can  equal.  The 
procession  should  pass  a  reviewing  stand,  where  some  com- 
mittee of  distinguished  visitors  awards  the  prize  for  excel- 
lence in  marching  and  general  impression. 

In  a  Virginia  school  fair  one  large  rural  school  marched 
with  every  boy  and  girl  in  blue-checked  homespun,  each 
boy  carr)ang  a  hoe  and  each  girl  a  broom.  Another  school 
had  every  child  and  teacher  in  a  white  "  middy  suit."  Such 
uniforms  arc  so  useful  and  cheap  for  general  wear  that  the 
cost  is  practically  nothing,  i)ut  the  im|)ression  made  by 
several  hundred  children  marching  with  uniforms,  banners, 
songs,  and  yells  is  one  never  to  be  forgotten. 


346  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Review  the  manner  in  which  you  have  seen  certain  school 
holidays  observed  and  criticize  according  to  actual  educative  effect. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  special-day  occasions  which  you  think  it 
particularly  desirable  to  observe  in  your  school.  Give  reasons  for 
your  choice. 

3.  Make  plans  for  the  observation  of  one  or  more  of  these, 
pointing  out  the  precise  educative  aim  and  the  definite  means  of 
attaining  it. 

4.  Indicate  special  needs  of  your  community  which  could  be 
contributed  to  by  means  of  special  exercises  or  meetings  in  which 
children  and  parents  might  participate. 

5.  Prepare  a  plan  for  "  Patrons'  Day,"  beginning  with  the  aims 
or  needs  to  be  sought  and  indicating  the  means  of  attaining  them. 

6.  Write  out  a  general  plan  for  a  school  fair,  to  include  your 
school  with  others.  Indicate  the  sorts  of  school  work  you  would 
seek  to  stimulate  and  the  contests  you  would  organize  in  these. 

READINGS 

Settle.    County  School  Fairs  in  \irginia. 

Farmville  (Virginia)  State  Normal  School ;  Training  School  Work  for 

Special  Days. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletins 

Bulletin  No.  8,  191 2,  "  Peace  Day"  (Andrews). 

Bulletin  No.  26,  191 3.  "  Good  Roads,  Arbor  Day"  (Lipe). 

Bulletin  No.  ^j,  191 3,  "Agriculture  and  Rural  Life  Day"  (Brooks). 


CHAPTER  XXX 
THE  TEACHER'S   RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES 

Friction  and  lubrication.  All  relations  of  persons  to 
each  other  involve  opportunities  for  discord  and  conflict. 
The  relations  of  the  teacher  are  particularly  complex  and 
delicate  and  offer  unlimited  occasions  for  friction.  Teaching 
implies  an  unceasing  adaptation  to  the  idiosyncrasies  of  some 
twoscore  unsettled  and  irresponsible  pupil  personalities,  of  a 
larger  number  of  deeply  concerned  parents,  and  of  a  varying 
number  of  supervisors,  superintendents,  and  superincumbent 
board  members.  We  have  seen  that  in  its  best  development 
teaching  involves  vital  contact  with  almost  every  aspect  of 
the  life  of  the  community.  And  at  every  point  of  contact 
there  must  be  the  lubrication  of  tact,  good  judgment,  and 
sympathy,  if  friction  is  to  be  avoided. 

Rights  and  duties.  Laws  and  regulations  mark  off  the 
line  of  contact  and  possible  conflict.  They  indicate  one's 
rights  and  duties,  and  a  teacher  should  know  these  clearly. 
But  laws  mark  the  limits  beyond  which  one  mav  not  go  — 
the  maxima  of  rights  and  the  minima  of  duty.  The  wise 
teacher  knows  his  rights  that  he  may  keep  far  within  them. 
He  knows  his  duties  that  he  may  far  exceed  them.  The 
whole  attitude  of  a  teacher  who  declines  every  duty  that  is 
not  prescribed  or  demands  every  right  that  is  not  proscribed 
is  an  incessant  irritant  and  provocative  of  friction.  He  who 
always  "stands  on  his  rights"  soon  plunges  into  wrongs. 
That  teacher  who  does  only  his  duty  fails  in  tlie  duty  that 
is  highest.    It  will  be  well,  nevertheless,  to  outline  some  of 

347 


348  SCHOOL   KFFICIENCY 

these  rights  and  duties  of  teachers  that  we  may  the  better 
give  more  than  is  demanded  of  us  and  demand  less  than  is 
given  us. 

1.  Regulations.  It  is  a  right  of  every  teaclier  to  receive 
in  convenient  and  casil)"  understood  form  all  legislation  and 
regulation  relative  to  his  work.  Statutory  requirements  are 
supplemented  by  regulations  of  various  stciie  and  local  boards 
of  education,  boards  of  health,  sanitary  and  fire  commis- 
sioners, superintendents,  and  other  officials.  There  may  be 
numerous  rules  of  the  particular  school  and  sundry  routine 
reports,  requirements,  and  customs.  All  these  should  be 
simplified,  clarified,  and  codified,  and  supplied  to  each 
teacher  in  black  and  white. 

It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  study  these  laws  and  regula- 
tions thoroughly  and  to  carry  them  out  in  spirit  as  well  as  in 
letter  —  sympathetically  and  freel}-,  not  carpingly  or  grudg- 
ingly. The  letter  of  the  law  is  the  irreducible  minimum  of 
requirements.     It  is  the  beginning,  not  the  end,  of  duty. 

2.  Contract.  A  teacher  having  accepted  an  appointment 
is  entitled  to  a  contract  specifying  the  term  of  employment, 
salary,  mode  of  payment,  hours  of  daily  service,  authorities 
to  whom  one  is  subject,  and  extra  duties.  This  is  legally 
binding  on  the  board  and  no  less  so  on  the  teacher.  To 
abandon  a  contract  at  one's  convenience,  knowing  that 
because  of  one's  financial  irresponsibility  the  board  has  no 
legal  redress,  is  dishonorable.  Any  contract  may  be  termi- 
nated and  any  position  resigned  after  due  notice  and  with 
the  consent  of  the  employing  authorit\-.  Quite  properly, 
superintendents  are  refusing  to  give  indorsements  to  teachers 
who  violate  their  contracts.  Often  such  teachers  are  black- 
listed, and  the  laws  of  some  states  punish  the  violation  of 
contract  by  suspension  of  certificate. 

3.  Accepting  position.  One  may  apply  for  as  many  posi- 
tions as  he  pleases  ;  the  uncertainty  of  election  makes  this 


THE  TEACHER'S  RIGHTS  ANT)  DUTIES        349 

necessary.  He  may  decline  to  accept  when  elected.  He 
may  ask  for  time  in  which  to  accept,  though  no  board 
is  under  obligations  to  grant  the  delay.  But  once  having 
signified  his  acceptance  he  is  bound  in  honor  to  fill  the 
position  unless  freely  released  b)-  the  employing  authority. 
One  may  properl)'  insist  upon  favorable  sanitary  or  other 
improvements  being  made  as  a  condition  of  his  acceptance, 
but  not  as  an  excuse  for  breaking  an  engagement  once 
made.  Having  given  his  word,  he  is  morally  bound  as  truly 
as  if  the  contract  were  signed.  As  soon  as  he  has  accepted 
a  position  he  should  w^ithdraw  his  applications  for  any 
others.  School  boards  are  often  burdened  with  countless 
wholly  presumptuous  and  undesired  applications  which  they 
are  under  no  obligations  to  consider,  but  applicants  who 
have  been  under  consideration,  or  have  good  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  they  have  been,  are  entitled  to  know  when  they 
have  been  rejected  as  well  as  when  they  have  been  ac- 
cepted. The  prompt  information  may  be  more  necessary  for 
the  unsuccessful  applicant  than  for  the  successful  one. 

4.  Rii^/it  to  a  place.  A  teacher's  only  claim  to  any  posi- 
tion is  his  fitness  for  it.  Of  the  candidates  for  a  desirable 
position  there  are  often  several  among  whom  no  one  can 
w^ith  certainty  determine  which  has  the  greatest  actual  and 
potential  fitness.  It  is  then  that  a  personal  acquaintance, 
a  word  in  time  from  a  mutual  friend,  may  determine  the 
selection.  Until  our  system  of  preparing,  measuring,  and 
selecting  teachers  is  far  more  perfect,  chance  and  less 
creditable  factors  will  often  have  much  to  do  with  the 
selection  of  teachers.  It  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  a 
right  and  perhaps  a  duty  of  a  young  teacher  to  cultivate  a 
wide  acquaintance  among  educational  authorities  and  among 
those  who  have  infiuence  with  them.  The  leaders  in  other 
professions  seek  business  through  cultivating  influential 
friends  and  acquaintances. 


350  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

But  this  sort  of  doctrine  quickly  degenerates  into  mere 
"pull"  or  boast.  Friends  worth  while  are  not  willing  to  be 
used  to  bolster  up  pretensions  not  built  on  genuine  worth. 
Pompous  self-praise  and  feminine  wiles  have  been  used  so 
often  that  school  boards  even  in  remote  sections  are  be- 
coming very  suspicious.  Frequent  press  notices  bear  their 
own  evidences  of  pretense.  Whatever  means  one  may  be 
tempted  to  use  to  get  the  attention  of  employing  authorities, 
—  and  none  is  better  than  a  personal  interview,  —  the  only 
sort  of  pressure  that  is  professional  or  profitable  is  evidence 
of  fitness  as  shown  by  the  record  of  previous  achievement. 

5.  Teiunr.  School  boards  generally  recognize  the  desira- 
bility of  retaining  teachers  as  long  as  possible.  In  making 
changes  boards  are  often  too  slow  for  the  good  of  the 
schools.  But  it  is  the  right  of  the  teacher  to  feel  that, 
whatever  the  duration  of  the  contract,  one's  tenure  of  posi- 
tion is  safe  so  long  as  his  work  is  efficiently  done.  A  suc- 
cessful teacher  should  have  no  anxiety  as  to  the  permanency 
of  his  position.  On  the  other  hand,  the  .teacher  has  no 
claim  to  a  position  except  his  fitness,  and  a  board  should 
ver)'  properly  resent  any  other  effort  to  retain  a  place.  The 
use  of  personal  friendships,  social  acquaintances,  the  inter- 
vention of  parents  or  pupils,  or  other  efforts  to  place  a  board 
in  an  awkward  or  difficult  position,  should  be  regarded  as 
a  violation  of  professional  ethics  and  of  a  proper  sense  of 
honor.  Any  sort  of  appeal  to  social,  sectarian,  or  political 
pull  as  a  means  of  holding  to  a  position  should  be  regarded 
as  a  confession  of  lack  of  genuine  worth. 

6.  Indorsements.  On  leaving  a  position  or  at  any  time 
one  may  desire  to  apply  for  another  position  he  is  entitled 
to  a  fair  and  frank  statement  from  his  superintendent  as  to 
his  success  in  the  work  done.  It  will  be  a  good  day  when 
definite  ratings  without  personal  bias  can  be  given.  Then 
any  teacher  should  be  entitled  to  know  just  how  he  is  rated. 


THE  TEACHER'S  RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES        351 

As  it  is,  superintendents  and  officials  have  been  forced  to 
the  poHcy  of  giving  few  or  no  indorsements  into  the  hands 
of  the  person  indorsed,  in  order  to  protect  themselves  from 
occasionally  having  to  face  the  alternative  of  saying  empty 
nothings  or  writing  frankly  and  having  what  they  have  writ- 
ten converted  into  ashes  and  hard  feelings.  Worthy  teachers 
have  no  hesitancy  in  standing  on  their  records  and  others 
have  no  right  to  embarrass  officials  by  asking  for  to-whom- 
it-may-concern  testimonials.  Teachers  have  the  right  to  give 
a  former  or  present  superintendent  as  reference,  and  the 
employing  authorities  should  write  to  him  for  such  frank, 
confidential  opinion  as  they  may  desire.  One  such  direct 
statement  is  usually  more  effective  than  many  sent  through 
the  teacher. 

7.  Exemption  from  intcifcrcncc.  Every  teacher  is  entitled 
to  protection  from  all  interference  in  the  discharge  of  his 
duty.  In  several  states  the  statutes  specify  that  upbraiding 
or  insulting  a  teacher  in  the  presence  of  his  school  is  a 
misdemeanor.  In  school  not  even  parents  may  interfere 
with  the  teacher's  management  or  control  of  their  own 
children.  But  if  the  teacher  is  to  enjoy  this  exemption 
from  interference  in  school,  it  imposes  upon  him  an  obli- 
gation to  keep  in  touch  with  parents  out  of  school  hours  in 
order  to  secure  their  confidence  by  sympathetic  conferences 
and  consultations.  A  wise  teacher  will  decline  to  discuss 
discordant  questions  before  the  pupils,  but  will  seek  a  better 
understanding  with  the  parent  at  some  more  appropriate  time. 

8.  In  loco  parentis.  With  some  variation  in  laws  and  regu- 
lations, it  is  pretty  generally  established  that  the  teacher 
has  control  of  the  child  in  school,  on  the  school  premises, 
and  on  the  way  to  and  from  school.  Me  has  no  control 
after  tiie  child  has  reached  home,  although  many  trouble- 
some cases  have  arisen  through  the  punishment  of  children 
for  offenses  committed  while  loitering  along  the  way  after 


352  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

they  should  have  been  at  home.  Obviousl)-  the  wise  poHcy, 
in  case  there  is  any  possible  doubt  of  jurisdiction,  is  to  go 
to  the  parent  in  a  spirit  of  helpful  cooperation,  to  offer  assist- 
ance if  desired,  but  to  invite  no  trouble  which  can  reasonably 
be  avoided.  Certain  aggressive  young  men  and  irritable  old 
ladies  seem  peculiarly  prone  to  create  discord  by  attempting 
to  extend  their  authority  too  far.  This  is  usually  resented 
and  quite  often  marks  the  end  of  one's  usefulness  in  a 
community.  The  right  personal  relations,  indeed,  render 
kindly  reproof,  a  word  of  caution,  or  a  serious  conference 
more  than  welcome  to  either  parent  or  child  ;  but  punish- 
ment by  a  questioned  authority  almost  inevitably  fails  of  its 
purpose  and  leads  to  trouble. 

9.  Right  of  punishment.  As  already  indicated  the  right 
of  the  teacher  with  regard  to  corporal  and  other  punishment 
is  often  limited  by  state  law  or  local  regulation.  These 
restrictions  have  arisen  from  the  growing  realization  that 
the  best  teaching  and  the  surest  authority  are  not  depend- 
ent on  physical  coercion.  A  teacher  who  accepts  a  posi- 
tion where  such  restrictions  are  in  force  owes  it  to  his 
position  not  to  be  finding  fault  with  the  regulations  but  to 
prove  that  he  is  one  of  those  teachers  who  do  not  need 
the  forbidden  means  to  maintain  authority.  He  should  keep 
the  law  to  the  letter  and  rise  far  above  it  in  the  spirit  of  his 
teaching  and  discipline. 

Could  an  adequate  supply  of  competent  teachers  be 
insured,  it  would  undoubtedly  be  the  wiser  policy  to  vest 
unlimited  authority  as  to  ijunisliment  in  the  teachers  and 
then  hold  them  strictly  rcsp(M-isil)le  for  the  right  exercise 
of  it.  But  boards  must  deal  with  teachers  as  they  are,  and 
the  restrictions  seem  to  be  justified  by  their  successful 
operation    in    many   city   systems. 

10.  Courses  and  methods.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher 
to  carry  out  carefully  and  sympathetically  whatever  methods, 


THE  TEACHER'S  RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES        353 

courses,  and  plans  of  instruction  the  higher  authorities  may 
formally  prescribe.  'I'hese  should  be  given  in  no  more  detail 
than  is  essential  to  secure  necessary  uniformity  of  results, 
except  as  further  details  tend  to  assist  with  suggesti(jns  and 
guidance  for  daily  work. 

It  is  the  right  of  every  teacher  to  plan  the  details  and 
methods  of  his  work,  so  far  as  they  are  not  jjrescribed  in 
advance,  without  fear  of  criticism  or  interference.  No  super- 
intendent or  supervisor  has  the  right  to  criticize  any  teacher 
before  the  class,  and  the  supervisory  function  should  in  no  wise 
hamper  the  initiative  and  originality  of  the  individual  teacher. 

11.  Pcrso7ial  conduct.  One  is  entitled  to  select  his  own 
boarding  place,  his  own  mode  of  life,  his  own  companion- 
ships and  associates.  Outside  of  his  prescribed  duties  his 
time  is  his  own  to  use  as  he  sees  fit.  His  forms  and  times 
of  recreation  are  subject  to  no  authority  but  his  own.  He 
is  at  liberty  to  attend  any  church  or  none. 

On  the  other  hand,  he  is  unworthy  to  be  a  teacher  who 
does  not  recognize  that  he  is  a  public  personage,  under  the 
public  eye,  and  that  his  influence  is  leaving  its  impression 
for  good  or  ill,  out  of  school  as  well  as  in  it.  He  has  no 
more  sacred  duty  than  to  keep  himself  aboxe  the  suspicion 
of  evil  and  to  forego  many  things  which  may  be  harmless 
in  themselves  for  the  mere  reason  that  they  might  be  mis- 
construed by  some  ovcrcritical  people  of  the  community  or 
have  a  bad  effect  on  the  young  whom  his  life  mav  be  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously  influencing.  It  is  a  supreme  dutv 
of  a  teacher  to  associate  himself  always  and  actively  with 
those  influences  which  stand  for  righteousness,  morality, 
and  community  betterment. 

12.  Cooperation.  Cooperation  is  both  the  teacher's  right 
and  the  teacher's  duty.  The  co-  means  "together"  and  the 
operation  means  "work."  The  word  does  not  mean  "work 
the  other  fellow,"  nor  yet  "everybody  is  boss."     It  means 


354  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

neither  dictation  by  a  superior  nor  submission  b\'  an  inferior 
in  rank.  Nor  yet  does  it  mean  that  the  superior  must  not 
lead  or  the  inferior  not  obey.  Leadership  and  obedience 
are  absolutely  essential  to  effective  organization,  and  effec- 
tive organization  is  the  very  basis  of  successful  cooperation. 
Superintendents,  principals,  and  teachers  must  all  be  ready 
and  glad  to  work,  to  do  all  that  the  contract  calls  for  and 
at  times  a  great  deal  more.  Each  must  do  all  his  own 
duty  and  also  help  the  other  where  he  can.  "'  Bear  ye  one 
another's  burdens  .  .  .  but  let  every  man  prove  his  own 
work  ...  for  every  man  shall  bear  his  own  burden." 
Supervisory  officials  are  selected  by  virtue  of  their  fitness  to 
lead,  guide,  and  aid  the  teacher  in  the  ranks  ;  but  effective 
leadership  consists  in  getting  subordinates  to  think  for  them- 
selves, to  act  independently,  to  have  initiative,  and  to  con- 
fer upon  general  plans,  even  more  than  it  consists  in  merely 
working  them.  The  higher  official  should  seek,  respect,  and 
carefully  consider  the  suggestions  and  opinions  of  subordi- 
nates. He  should  realize  that  the  opinions  of  subordinates 
are  often  much  better  for  them  to  carry  out  than  his  own 
can  be.  Nevertheless,  it  is  his  task  to  decide  all  problems 
except  the  internal  questions  of  the  classroom ;  and  when 
his  decision  is  made,  the  cooperation  of  the  subordinate  is 
simply  obedioice.  Whatever  may  have  been  his  own  opinion, 
the  individual  teacher  owes  his  most  hnal  and  hearty  sup- 
port to  the  policy  adopted  and  the  instructions  given. 

13.  Courtesy.  Finally,  every  teacher  is  entitled  to  cour- 
tesy and  deference  from  associates  and  superiors.  But  in 
receiving  it  one  is  equally  bound  to  render  it.  The  rela- 
tions between  the  members  of  any  teaching  corps  should 
be  at  least  the  same  that  should  maintain  between  gentle- 
men and  ladies  elsewhere.  Not  only  is  this  a  personal  right 
and  duty,  but  it  is  a  condition  without  which  a  wholesome 
schoolroom  spirit  and  example  are  impossible. 


THE  TEACHER'S  RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES        355 

PROBLEMS 

1.  From  your  state  laws  and  local  regulations  list  the  pre- 
scribed rights  and  duties  of  teachers.  Indicate  carefully  the 
mandatory  duties  and  the  prohibitions. 

2.  Make  a  statement  of  the  legal  relations  of  the  teacher  to 
(a)  school  board,  (/>)  superintendent,  (r)  principal,  {</)  parent,  and 
(e)  pupil. 

3.  What  duties  not  prescribed  by  law  are  specified  in  the  form 
of  teachers'  contract  used  ? 

4.  Write,  for  criticism  by  the  instructor,  a  letter  of  application 
for  some  position,  giving  all  the  facts  regarding  yourself  which  the 
employer  should  know  and  giving  references  to  responsible  persons 
who  can  speak  as  to  your  personality  and  work. 

5.  In  any  case  of  trouble  between  a  teacher  and  parent,  for 
which  you  can  secure  the  data,  judge  the  teacher's  position  as 
based  on  his  rights.  Did  a  contention  for  rights  in  any  measure 
cause  the  trouble  ?  Would  the  teacher  have  accomplished  his 
ultimate  purpose  better  by  not  contending  for  his  rights  ? 

READINGS 

Arnold.    School  and  Class  Management,  chaps,  iii-vi. 
Cha.n'cellok.    Our    Schools,    their    Administration    and    Supervision, 

chaps,  xi,  XV,  xvi. 
CuBHERLV.    Public  School  Administration,  chaps,  xiv-xvi. 
CuiiHERLV.  State  and  County  Educational  Reorganization,  Title  V. 
CuLTER  and  Stone.   The  Rural  School,  chap.  xvii. 
HoLLiSTER.    The    Administration    of    Education    in    a     Democracy, 

chap,  xviii. 
Page.    Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  chap.  xii. 
Perrv.    The  Status  of  the  Teacher,  chap.  iii. 
Salisbury.    School  Management,  chap.  vii. 
Seelev.    A  New  School  Management,  chaps,  xviii,  xix. 
School  Laws  of  your  State. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education 

Bullitiii,  No.  47.   1915,  "Digest  of  State  Laws  relating  to  Public 

Education  "  (Hood). 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

TEACHER  SELE-MANAGEMENT 

Self-management  in  school  management.  Throughout  this 
work  we  have  had  in  mind  the  ordinary  teacher ;  so  in  this 
final  chapter  we  must  forego  a  discussion  of  the  ideal,  who 
exists  only  in  dreams  and  poetic  imagery,  and  deal  still  with 
that  real,  everyday  teacher  —  like  the  reader  and  the  author 
—  with  all  the  failings  and  limitations  which  we  both  know 
so  well.  And  we  know  that,  after  all  is  said,  our  own  limi- 
tations are  our  most  serious  problems  in  the  conduct  of 
schools  and  in  the  management  of  children.  We  must 
know  that  the  first  essential  of  school  management  is  self- 
management  ;  that  he  that  ruleth  his  own  spirit  is  greater 
than  he  that  taketh  a  city.  We  have  been  careful  to  advo- 
cate only  those  plans  and  methods  with  which  everyday 
teachers  like  ourselves  can  succeed  and  have  succeeded. 
But  countless  teachers,  as  able  and  as  deserving  as  we,  have 
dismally  failed  in  their  work  or  have  suffered  untold  discour- 
agement and  wasted  the  best  of  themselves  needlessly,  for 
the  lack  of  judicial  self-management  or  of  personal  qualities 
quite  attainable.  Therefore  let  us  look  for  a  while  at  some 
of  the  controllable  factors  within  the  teacher  which  make 
for  his  success. 

Academic  preparation.  At  the  beginning  is  the  prepara- 
tion for  teaching.  Jacotot  said  very  truly  that  "one  may 
teach  that  which  he  does  not  know,"  but  the  attempt  to  do 
so  literally  has  often  spelled  disaster.  One  must  know  a 
great  deal  more  about  his  subject  than  he  expects  to  teach 
if  he  is  to  bring  force,  enthusiasm,  or  sane  balance  to  his 

3S6 


TEACHER  SELF-MANAGEMENT  357 

instruction.  He  cannot  hope  to  inspire  pupils  or  project 
their  interests  beyond  the  narrow  tasks  of  the  day  unless 
his  own  experience  in  the  subject  of  study  is  broad  and 
rich.  It  is  an  accepted  principle  that,  so  far  as  academic 
knowledge  of  subject  matter  goes,  the  mininumi  preparation 
for  a  grade  teacher  should  be  high-school  graduation,  and 
for  a  high-school  teacher  should  be  college  graduation.  But 
this  is  only  the  beginning.  To  teach  vitally,  one  must  be 
a  constant  reader.  The  monthly  magazines  and  daily  papers 
contain  abundant  materials  and  suggestions  to  vitalize  the 
textbook  work  of  the  school  classes.  An  habitual  reader  of 
good  books  will  find  them  a  constant  source  of  enrichment 
both  of  his  personal  life  and  of  all  that  he  teaches. 

Common  facts.  There  is  a  wealth  of  information  around 
one  on  every  hand  if  only  his  eyes  and  ears  are  open  and 
his  mind  alert.  Nature  and  one's  neighbors  afford  a  mar- 
velous insight  into  the  things  of  most  worth  in  the  com- 
mon subjects.  Travel,  however  limited,  is  full  of  suggestion 
and  revelation.  Table  talk  and  fireside  conversation  need 
not  be  pedantic  to  be  full  of  helpfulness  to  one  who  seeks 
to  get  knowledge  rather  than  to  display  it.  The  cumulative 
value  of  such  wide-awake  gleanings  from  daily  life  is  a  tre- 
mendous asset  in  making  teaching  worth  while  even  as  it 
is  in  making  living  worth  while. 

Quacks  and  teachers.  I*\illness  of  knowledge,  however, 
does  not  make  a  teacher  any  more  than  a  stock  of  drugs 
makes  a  physician.  There  was  a  time  when  a  few  simples 
and  a  knack  of  administering  them  was  all  that  was  neces- 
sary for  a  doctor,  and  so  there  was  a  day  when  a  little 
learning  and  "a  way  with  children"  sufficed  for  a  teacher; 
but  either  such  a  doctor  or  such  a  teacher  in  this  day 
should  be  regarded  as  a  quack.  There  has  grown  up  a 
body  of  scientific  knowledge  of  children  and  of  the  laws  of 
their  development  without  which  one  may  not  hope  to  be 


358  SCHOOL  KI'FICIENCV 

regarded  as  a  real  teacher.  There  ha\c  been  and  probably 
will  continue  to  be  fads  and  much  of  shallow  speculation 
and  sentimentality,  but  the  true  practitioner  must  master 
the  underlying  fundamentals  of  educational  science  and 
learn  to  avoid  the  vagaries.  Despite  all  erratic  tendencies, 
in  which  it  has  shared  the  experience  of  medicine  and 
other  professions,  few  sciences  have  made  more  rapid,  solid, 
and  permanent  progress  than  the  science  of  education. 

Professional  study.  To  be  a  teacher  of  more  than  rule- 
of-thumb  possibilities,  one  must  know  this  basis  of  educa- 
tional psychology.  He  must  be  familiar  with  the  principles 
of  its  application  to  the  art  of  directing  child  activities.  Me 
should  observe  much  good  instruction  and  analyze  it  in  the 
light  of  his  principles.  He  should  have  clear  conceptions 
of  the  aims  in  all  educational  processes  and  the  essentials  of 
the  methods  by  which  they  are  attained.  He  should  know 
the  problems  of  hygiene  and  organization  which  arise  from 
school  conditions  and  the  manner  of  their  solution  —  which 
is  the  field  we  have  considered  in  this  book.  He  should 
have  as  a  background  for  all  his  professional  studies,  to 
give  them  balance  and  perspective,  some  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  education.  Furthermore  his  knowledge  should  be 
tried  out,  seasoned,  and  brought  from  the  shadowy  realm 
of  ideas  and  images  to  the  bedrock  of  practical  experience, 
by  teaching  under  observation  and  criticism.  All  this  con- 
stitutes the  professional  side  of  a  modern  normal  training 
course.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  lectures  and 
textbooks  on  pedagogy  can  never  make  a  teacher,  nor 
can  observation  lessons,  however  beautiful.  Only  independ- 
ent thinking  can  make  books  effective  by  interpreting 
what  is  said  and  what  is  read  into  specific  instances  of 
actual  school  life.  No  pedagogical  theory  or  logic  should 
be  mistaken  for  a  teaching  asset  until  it  has  been  made 
concrete. 


TEACHEJl  SELF-MANAGEMENT  359 

A  continuing  process.  The  normal  course,  like  a  general 
academic  course,  is  only  a  beginning,  a  getting  started  right. 
Genuine  professional  education  continues  all  through  life. 
As  in  liberal  education,  there  is  a  wealth  of  literature  con- 
stantly coming  from  the  press,  any  of  which  may  happen 
to  be  as  important  and  as  epochal  in  one's  development  as 
the  best  that  has  passed.  A  growing  teacher  is  necessarily 
a  reader  of  the  cream  of  the  new  professional  books  in  his 
field  and  some  of  the  best  educational  periodicals.  Among 
these  latter  will  be  his  state  journal,  one  or  more  of  the 
journals  of  methods  relating  to  his  branch  of  teaching,  and 
at  least  one  of  the  high-grade  magazines  of  general  educa- 
tional interest.  Again,  as  in  the  general  enrichment  of  one's 
life  and  knowledge,  the  experiences  and  opportunities  of 
every  day  are  the  steps  by  which  one  rises  in  his  profes- 
sion. In  the  classroom,  in  conversation  with  children  and 
parents  and  people  generally,  one  is  constantly  getting  a 
newer  and  truer  light  on  the  motives  and  values  in  educa- 
tion as  seen  from  the  side  of  the  pupil,  whether  a  pupil  of 
to-day  or  of  a  generation  ago.  This  is  a  most  wholesome 
corrective  for  impractical  theorizing.  Visiting  other  schools 
and  classes  is  always  rich  with  profitable  suggestion.  He 
must  be  petrified  indeed  who  does  not  grow  hourly  in  pro- 
fessional zeal  and  ability  under  the  stimulus  of  visiting  often 
in  new  classrooms  with  new  buildings,  teachers,  methods, 
and  new  groups  of  children  to  see.  A  partial  substitute  for 
this  visiting  privilege  is  afforded,  along  with  many  other 
professional  advantages,  by  the  occasional  gatherings  of 
teachers  in  institutes  and  conventions.  Professionally,  as 
spiritually,  mentally,  and  physically,  grozvth  is  tJic  only 
prcvoitivc  of  decay. 

Keeping  physically  fit.  A  professional  asset  of  the 
highest  worth  is  plnsical  energy;  not  that  school  demands 
hcaw  i^hwsical  work,   but   it  does  rccjuire   that   poise,   good 


36o  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

nature,  and  enthusiasm  which  only  abundant  energy  can 
supply.  Irritability,  frctfulncss,  and  depression  are  common 
products  of  a  weakened  ph)sique,  and  they  are  sure  trouble- 
makers in  the  classroom.  Hence  it  is  the  professional  duty 
of  every  teacher  to  keep  himself  in  the  best  physical  trim 
at  all  times.  Worry,  too  long  hours  of  confinement  or  of 
work  with  lessened  vitality  and  increased  nervousness  and 
impatience,  are  professional  sins.  Keeping-in  of  pupils,  if 
indeed  the  practice  is  ever  justifiable,  is  pernicious  when  it 
prevents  the  teacher's  having  a  needed  walk  or  ride  or  game 
in  the  open  air.  Encroaching  upon  the  hours  of  rest  to 
mark  class  exercises  is  destructive  of  teaching  force  and 
so  of  thoroughness  and  efficiency.  One  as  truly  owes  it  to 
his  position  not  to  sacrifice  his  sleep,  rest,  recreation,  social 
life,  and  peace  of  mind  for  daily  tasks  as  he  does  not  to 
sacrifice  the  tasks  to  these  pleasanter  things.  Professional 
zeal  which  is  destructive  of  the  human  joy  of  living  is 
merely  professional  folly.  First  of  all  be  a  real  man  or  a 
real  woman,  with  real  human  joy  and  physical  vitality. 

How  to  fill  a  full  day  yet  fuller.  But  when  "  all  the  time 
there  is  "  is  too  little  for  the  countless  duties  incident  to  the 
school,  how  is  it  possible  for  the  weary  teacher  to  rest  and 
read  and  play  and  visit  and  travel  ?  In  short,  how  can  one 
be  a  teacher  and  be  thoroughly  human  at  the  same  time .'' 
As  a  bushel  measure  that  is  heaped  up  with  potatoes  may 
still  hold  several  quarts  of  beans  and  then  some  pints  of 
sugar  and  a  considerable  ciuantity  of  water  besides,  and 
yet  be  no  more  heaped  up  than  with  the  potatoes  alone, 
so  a  day  that  is  filled  with  all  the  school  work  that  it  can 
profitably  hold  may  yet  provide  for  recreation,  rest,  and 
reading. 

This  is  attained  only  by  a  rational  balancing  of  life's 
values  in  the  day's  work.  With  a  maximum  of  six  hours 
spent  with  classes,  two  or  three  more  at  most  should  suffice 


TEACHER  SELF-MANAGEMENT  361 

for  daily  preparation  and  routine  duties.  Seven  to  nine 
hours  of  sleep,  varying  with  the  individual's  needs,  should 
never  be  interrupted  by  wearj-ing  work  and  seldom  by  rest- 
ful recreation.  There  remains  a  good  seven,  hours  each 
school  day,  much  of  Saturday,  and  all  of  Sunday  for  meals 
and  other  activities  which  are  not  strictl\-  school  work.  The 
use  of  this  "spare  time"  determines  each  person's  position 
in  his  profession  and  in  the  world.  Some  waste  it  in  loiter- 
ing, dawdling  about,  and  talking  idle  nothings.  Others 
waste  these  precious  hours  in  misguided  conscientiousness, 
worrying  over  school  difficulties,  drudging  over  useless 
marking  of  papers,  and  puttering  over  trivialities  which 
with  a  little  genuine  foresight  and  vigorous  handling  would 
resolve  themselves  into  nothings. 

Apportioning  the  day.  Each  individual  must  learn  for 
himself  how  much  of  this  spare  time  may  wisely  be  spent 
in  intellectual  activity.  As  long  as  sleep  and  exercise  are 
not  stinted,  it  is  probable  that  a  vigorous  person  can  work 
almost  continuously  while  his  ambition  and  interest  lasts. 
But  for  most  of  us  continuous  study  in  a  single  field  soon 
becomes  burdensome  and  goes  on  at  a  low  standard  of  effi- 
ciency. A  little  time  should  be  devoted  regularly  to  I'igonms 
exercise  of  the  sort  which  is  most  enjoyed  —  outdoor  sports 
or  some  hobby  that  demands  much  physical  exercise.  Meals 
and  some  other  regular  occasions  should  be  happy  social 
times  with  abundance  of  mirth  and  good  fellowship.  One 
should  carefully  select  his  boarding  place,  his  friends,  and 
associates  with  a  view  to  having  these  social  hours  con- 
genial and  enjoyable.  There  should  be  conversation  of 
the  kind  that  invigorates,  cheers,  and  delights,  and  music 
that  one  really  enjoys.  Some  time  should  be  set  aside 
for  regular  reading  of  the  daily  news  and  current  periodi- 
cals and  for  some  systematic  reading  of  good  general  and 
professional  literature. 


362  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

Upward  climbing.  All  this  keeps  one  physically,  mentally, 
and  spiritually  fit  for  his  daily  work,  but  progress  in  one's 
profession  is  accomplished  by  the  systematic,  determined 
study,  writing,  or  other  hard  work  done  little  by  little,  day 
by  day,  in  the  face  of  fatigue  and  discouragement,  and  the 
unceasing  temptation  to  procrastinate.  In  this  matter  of 
growth  a  fixed  ambition  and  a  definite  plan  are  essential. 
With  sufficient  determination  and  by  doing  a  little  every 
day,  a  truly  astonishing  amount  can  be  achieved  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years  in  the  way  of  extending  one's  educa- 
tion and  fitting  one  for  better  positions.  There  is  no  limit 
set  except  one's  own  will  power.  It  is  in  these  hours  saved 
for  independent  work  that  "•"  self-made  men "  are  made. 
What  is  done  in  one's  working  hours  holds  his  job.  What 
is  done  in  spare  hours  gets  a  better  one. 

A  work  schedule.  For  many,  a  definite,  vvritten-out 
schedule  is  necessary  to  make  the  right  use  of  spare  hours 
possible  until  the  habit  has  been  formed.  It  should  be  an 
elastic  schedule  as  already  recommended  for  class  work.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  all  days  be  used  just  alike,  but  it  is 
necessary  that  the  relatively  trixial  matters  of  to-day  shall 
not  take  precedence  over  the  vital  thing,  and  that  the  things 
we  want  to  do  shall  not  unduly  prolong  themselves  into  time 
set  aside  for  the  thing  we  ought  to  do.  I^ach  day's  troubles 
and  interests  seem  all  important  at  the  time,  but  all  days  to 
come  will  be  like  them  in  this  respect.  Building  for  the 
future  is  possible  only  by  getting  a  right  perspective  of  the 
things  of  the  present.  A  time  for  each  thing  and  each 
thing  in  its  time  avoids  hesitation  and  procrastination,  and 
these  are  time  consumers.  A  definite  plan  makes  for  con- 
centration on  each  employment  in  turn.  A  vigorous  life 
necessitates  that  one  play  while  he  plays  and  work  while  he 
works.  The  busiest  men  are  the  ones  who  have  most  time 
for    achievements    outside   their  daily   routine,   and    this   is 


TEACHER  SELF-MANAGEMENT  363 

because  they  have  formed  the  habit  of  living  strenuously, 
of  doing  vigorously  first  one  thing  and  then  another,  but 
always  doing  and  doing  effectively.  Genius  is  responsible 
for  few  genuine  successes.  Energetic  "  redeeming  the 
time  "  is  the  key  to  greatness.  Also  the  active,  strenuous 
life  is  the  happier  life,  the  richer  life,  the  life  "  more 
abundant."  It  has  far  more  of  fun,  of  recreation,  of 
amusement,  of  pleasure,  and  of  achievement. 

The  folly  of  worry.  Worry  is  everywhere  the  great 
destroyer  of  efficiency.  It  is  useless,  avoidable,  and  wicked 
in  its  disastrous  results.  Instead  of  fretting  over  what 
you  cannot  do,  decide  on  what  you  can  do  and  do  it  hard. 
Instead  of  getting  excited  about  what  cannot  be  helped, 
accept  it  and  make  the  best  of  it.  But  if  there  is  some- 
thing that  can  be  helped,  then  help  it.  Divert  your  energies 
from  fretting  into  achievement.  Learn  to  see  all  the  little 
troubles  of  the  day  s?ib  specie  aeteriiitatis,  from  the  long 
viewpoint  of  eternity,  and  then  their  essential  triviality  will 
bring  good  humor  and  peace  of  mind.  Faith  in  the  ulti- 
mate right  of  all  things  is  a  force  whose  worth  in  the  school 
can  never  be  measured.  Since  "all  things  work  together 
for  good  to  them  that  love  the  Lord,"  it  is  only  necessary 
to  love  Him  and  work  your  schedule  for  all  )ou  arc  worth, 
to  be  sure  that  nothing  goes  very  seriously  wrong. 

Personality  complex  but  attainable.  Personality  is  often 
regarded  as  a  quality  essential  to  teaching  success.  It  is 
spoken  of  as  though  it  were  a  single  quality,  a  sort  of  gift 
of  the  gods  which  one  either  has  or  has  not,  like  blue  eves 
or  red  hair.  Hut  tlierc  are  as  manv  personalities  as  there 
are  persons,  and  there  are  infinite  variations  in  kind  as  well 
as  in  degree.  Personality  has  been  as  hard  for  psychologists 
to  define  as  was  "the  will,"  and  for  much  the  same  reason. 
Instead  of  finding  that  the  will  is  a  separate  and  distinct 
thing    or   function,   they  have   concluded   that   "  the   whole 


364  SCHOOL  EFl'ICIENC  Y 

mind  active,  this  is  will."  So  all  those  manners,  accomplish- 
ments, habits,  interests,  abilities,  and  characteristics  which 
make  one  the  person  that  he  is, — these  arc  his  personality. 
According  as  the  combination  is  strong  or  weak,  interesting 
or  commonplace,  attractive  or  repulsive,  just  so  we  may 
describe  his  personality.  It  is  both  native  and  acquired, 
both  inherited  and  cultivated,  both  fixed  and  changeable, 
both  predestined  and  made  from  day  to  day  at  one's  own 
sweet  will.  Whatever  gift  one  has  been  born  to,  let  him 
make  the  best  of  it.  But  the  qualities  that  count  most  are 
achieved  through  determined  effort. 

"The  best  policy."  Sincerity  is  one  of  the  elements  of 
personality  for  which  each  individual  is  responsible.  What- 
ever he  may  be,  let  him  be  himself.  Posing  is  the  sure 
sign  of  an  ineffective  personality,  but  is  an  especial  tempta- 
tion of  the  teacher.  A  too  professional  air,  an  attitude  of 
superior  wisdom,  a  pretense  of  knt)wing  what  one  does  not 
or  being  what  one  is  not,  an  assumption  of  monarchical 
superiority,  a  prudishness  in  classroom  which  one  does  not 
take  seriously  outside,  or  the  making  of  threats  which  one 
would  not  execute  —  these  are  forms  of  insincerity  to  which 
teachers  of  children  are  particularly  prone.  All  are  as  futile 
as  they  are  false.  Children  see  through  pretenses  with  a 
marvelous  shrewdness,  and  a  far-sighted  teacher  would  better 
confess  any  ignorance  or  tolerate  much  disorder  than  to 
have  his  pupils  once  begin  to  discount  his  sincerity  or  ques- 
tion the  worth  of  his  threats.  It  may  have  been  sacrilegious 
wit  or  mere  confusion  which  first  gave  rise  to  the  misquota- 
tion, "A  lie  is  an  abomination  unto  the  Lord  and  a  very 
present  help  in  time  of  trouble,"  but  the  statement  couples 
quite  pointedly  the  effect  and  the  cause  of  a  lie.  It  is  when 
the  teacher  is  in  trouble  through  lack  of  knowledge  or  lack 
of  control  or  lack  of  confidence  in  his  knowledge  or  in  his 
control  that  a  little  lie  —  white  or  light  gray  —  seems  a  very 


TEACHER  SELF-MANAGEMENT  365 

present  help.  liut  he  may  be  sure  that  it  is  an  abomina- 
tion and  will  bring  its  penalty.  There  are  two  means  of 
avoiding  such  temptation  :  foresight  and  rigorous  rules  of 
honesty.  Foresight  plans  to  meet  the  difficulty  before  it 
comes  and  gives  sureness  and  strength.  A  positive  love 
of  directness  weaves  no  tangled  webs  of  deceit.  It  is  not 
one's  business  to  know  everything,  and  a  frank  "  I  don't 
know"  is  often  good  teaching,  while  "Look  that  up  for 
to-morrow "  is  a  far  better  method  than  posing  as  an 
encyclopedia. 

Tact  and  its  uses.  Tact  has  been  defined  as  the  art  of 
attaining  your  own  ends  by  the  other  fellow's  methods.  It 
is  primarily  a  way  of  getting  maximum  results  with  mini- 
mum friction.  It  is  an  efficient  lubricant  for  every  "  point 
of  contact  in  teaching."  Child,  parent,  teacher,  and  school 
official  have  but  one  end  in  view.  All  have  a  single  pur- 
pose. Tact  uses  for  each  his  own  efficient  immediate  motive 
in  order  to  attain  for  all  the  sufficient  ultimate  end.  Tact 
is  not  hostile  to  sincerity.  Honesty  has  to  do  with  one's 
own  motives,  tact  with  the  motives  of  others.  To  persons 
enamored  of  their  own  blunt  directness  there  seems  a  moral 
straightness  in  assigning  a  boy  a  lesson  and  making  him 
learn  it  by  an  immediate  appeal  to  force,  and  there  seems 
a  sort  of  crookedness  in  first  manipulating  the  play  motive 
to  make  him  want  to  do  it.  But  such  bluntncss  is  a  more 
or  less  egotistical  expression  of  one's  own  impulses  and  often 
becomes  a  pose,  while  attaining  educative  values  through 
nature's  forces  is  the  really  straight  road  to  teaching  suc- 
cess. Tact  respects  the  impulses  and  interests  of  parents. 
It  recognizes  their  parental  affection  and  j:)ride,  their  igno- 
rance and  their  anxictv,  as  ecjuallv  worthv  of  consideration 
and  equally  to  be  reckoned  as  one's  own  likes  and  dislikes. 
Tact  is  a  habit  attained  by  determinedly  looking  at  every 
problem  in  the  light  of  the  interests  and  attitudes  of  others. 


366  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

It  is  considerateness  and  Christian  sympathy  which  are 
never  inborn  but  must  ahvays  be  cultivated  by  each  individual 
for  himself  through  much  self-conquest. 

Politeness  —  a  teaching  power.  Courtesy  and  politeness 
are  elements  of  personality  not  unlike  tact  in  that  they  are 
habits  acquired  through  considerateness  for  others.  If  genu- 
ine, they  soon  permeate  one's  whole  character  and  glorify 
his  personality.  The  American  word  "citified,"  the  Latin 
'"  urbane,"  and  the  Greek  "  polite  "  have  the  same  original 
meaning  and  indicate  respectively  three  degrees  of  the  "strik- 
ing in  "  of  a  certain  polish  that  comes  from  contact  with 
others.  The  shallow  "citified"  quality  is  offensive  because 
of  its  obvious  superficiality;  urbanity  implies  no  moral  worth 
though  a  very  agreeable  quality  ;  while  true  politeness  im- 
plies both  nobility  of  character  and  social  charm.  There  is 
a  fine  teaching  quality  in  one's  readiness  and  sincerity  in 
saying  to  his  pupils,  "Thank  you,"  "I  beg  pardon,"  and 
"  If  you  please  "  ;  or  his  genuineness  in  conferring  and  re- 
ceiving courtesies  precisely  as  if  in  a  drawing  room.  Both 
for  its  agreeableness  and  for  its  tendency  to  duplicate  itself 
in  the  children,  politeness  should  rank  high  in  the  rating 
of  a  teacher's  personality. 

Cheerfulness.  Cheerfulness  rests  primarily  on  health  and 
wholesome  physical  regimen,  on  comfortable  sleep,  happy 
recreation,  fresh  air,  good  digestion,  vigorous  circulation,  and 
those  other  blessings  of  the  simple  life.  Yet  some  strong 
souls  rise  above  the  clouds  of  physical  misfortune  and  live 
in  the  sunshine  of  eternal  cheerfulness.  Wisely  indeed  may 
a  school  board  prefer  this  glory  of  personality  to  many  aca- 
demic attainments.  It  enormously  removes  difficulties  and 
increases  study  power  among  pupils.  ICffort  is  often  neces- 
sary to  enable  one  to  look  on  the  bright  side  of  things 
when  everything  seems  to  go  wrong,  but  the  things  most 
worth  while  cost  effort. 


TEACHER  SELF-MANAGEMENT  367 

Patience.  Unlimited  patience  is  another  quality  which 
factors  largely  in  teaching  success.  We  are  ever  rushing  to 
get  over  the  ground  of  prescribed  subject  matter  and  seem  to 
fail  to  realize  that  children  must  gfoiv  through  their  studies, 
not  go  through  them.  In  matters  of  conduct  we  have  been 
expecting  children  to  act  according  to  our  impulses,  standards, 
and  insights.  Good  teaching  means  guiding  the  child  im- 
pulses as  we  would  train  a  vine  and  letting  the  growth  come 
from  within.  Patience,  too,  is  a  self-cultivated  quality  based 
largely  on  a  sympathetic  study  of  real  children. 

Courage  to  trust.  Faith  in  childhood  is  a  fruit  of  affec- 
tionate patience  and  sympathetic  knowledge.  The  inspiring 
experiences  of  those  who  trust  children  wisely  gives  us  un- 
limited confidence  in  the  essential  goodness  of  even  the 
worst  of  them.  Tlic  sturdy  loyalty  of  the  youthful  outlaws 
of  Denver  to  the  trust  that  Judge  Ben  Lindsey  places  in 
them  puts  to  shame  our  skepticism.  Let  us  never  forget 
that  there  is  in  every  normal  child  an  abundance  of  good 
impulses  to  meet  every  test  to  which  we  have  any  right  to 
subject  him,  certainly  to  meet  every  proper  demand  of  school 
life.  The  danger  is  in  our  trying  to  fit  complex  adult  situa- 
tions to  simple  child  impulses.  Strong  faith  in  the  goodness 
of  children  brings  w'ith  it  a  poise  which  commands  respect 
and  meets  emergencies. 

Firmness.  Sincerity,  tact,  faith,  sympathy,  politeness, 
patience,  kindness,  love,  arc  assets  in  government  because 
they  are  wonderfully  beautiful  things  in  themselves,  be- 
cause they  make  the  possessor  of  them  lovable  and  attractive, 
because  they  avoid  friction  and  the  occasions  of  govern- 
mental restrictions,  and  also  because  they  make  positiveness 
and  firmness  possible.  The  firmness  of  stubbornness  or  of 
tyranny  means  friction,  conflict,  rebellion,  or  else  mere  grovel- 
ing servility.  lUit  firmness  based  upon  the  gentler  virtues 
is  easily  maintained  and  thoroughly  respected.    It  is  possible 


368  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

to  be  firm  without  being  stubborn,  but  many  otherwise  good 
teachers  have  gotten  themselves  into  trouble  and  out  of  posi- 
tion by  making  issues  of  nonessentials,  by  contending  for 
trivialities  instead  of  for  fundamentals,  by  laying  down  ulti- 
mata where  only,  request  was  justifiable,  by  omitting  the 
siiavitcr  in  viodoixoxn  \ht  fortitcr  in  re.  Firmness  in  essen- 
tials is  fundamental  to  leadership.  It  is  based  on  a  clear 
conception  of  what  are  essentials.  As  a  trait  of  personality, 
firmness  may  be  acquired  not  by  the  habit  of  sticking  to 
every  position  taken  but  by  the  habit  of  taking  no  positions 
to  which  one  should  not  stick. 

Initiative.  Initiative,  everywhere  vital  to  leadership,  makes 
the  main  difference  between  the  si:)iritlcss,  plodding  school- 
keeper  and  the  inspiring  teacher.  One  who  can  only  imi- 
tate methods,  follow  instructions,  drag  through  a  prescribed 
routine,  deserves  pity  beyond  almost  any  mortal  —  except  his 
pupils.  Every  lesson,  every  problem  of  management  should 
be  a  challenge  for  an  original  solution.  With  a  mind  well 
stored  with  guiding  principles  and  practice  in  thinking  out 
their  application  one  should  solve  each  pedagogical  problem 
on  its  own  merits.  Thus  is  formed  a  liabit  of  originality 
and  independence  which  makes  teaching  the  livest,  largest, 
most  inspiring  work  of  man.  Especially  in  the  modern  com- 
munity relations  is  there  opportunity  for  leadership  and  a 
need  to  take  courage  and  start  movements  which  could  not 
otherwise  hope  to  be  started.  Courage  for  this  sort  of  thing 
comes  readily  with  a  little  experience  and  the  discovery  of 
how  easy  it  is  to  set  things  in  motion.  Reading,  visiting, 
and  keeping  abreast  of  the  times  will  suj^ply  abundant 
suggestion,  and  good  sense  with  hard  work  will  devise 
the  way. 

Personal  appearance.  Personal  attractiveness  is  an  impor- 
tant consideration  among  teaching  qualities  and  well  worthy 
to  be  cultivated.     It  is  neither  unprofessional  nor  unmanly 


TEACHER  SELF-MANAGEMENT  369 

nor,  needless  to  sa)*,  unwomanly  to  be  as  attractive  as  possi- 
ble. A  sweet  face  is  a  better  teaching  asset  than  a  pretty 
one.  The  teachers  whom  children  love  for  their  personal 
charm  are  rather  those  whose  beauty  shows  tluviigh  than  on 
their  faces ;  not  some  skin-deep  comeliness  but  a  growing 
unselfishness,  happy  disposition,  sympathetic  interest  in 
others,  mental  alertness,  and  genuine  worth.  Like  personality 
itself,  personal  charm  eludes  definition.  It  is  a  complex  so 
subtle  that  it  cannot  be  analyzed,  but  young  people  should 
know  that  it  is  attainable.  It  is  not  a  gift  of  the  gods  but 
it  grows  with  good  planting  and  faithful  cultivation. 

Cleanliness  and  taste.  Neatness  in  taste  and  dress  and 
particularly  cleanliness  are  personal  attractions  that  go  far 
to  winning  respect  and  admiration.  Their  opposites  are  un- 
pardonable in  a  teacher.  A  soiled  collar,  waist,  or  nails  may 
contribute  quite  positively  to  school  troubles.  Leadership 
rests  in  liking,  and  it  is  very  hard  for  refined  people  to  like 
one  who  is  "tacky"  or  slovenly. 

Friendship.  I^'riendlincss  wins  friends  as  nothing  else  can 
do.  ( )ne  who  has  been  selected  to  teach  the  children  of  a 
community  need  have  no  fear  that  it  will  be  considered 
presumj^tuous  in  him  to  regard  their  parents  and  the  people 
as  his  friends.  Timidity  and  the  fear  of  being  thought  for- 
ward has  caused  many  a  warm-hearted  teacher  to  be  regarded 
as  cold  and  aloof.  While  the  people  owe  it  to  a  new  teacher 
to  extend  a  hearty  and  friendly  welcome,  many  do  not,  and 
unless  the  teacher  makes  the  advance  there  will  often  be 
no  advance  made. 

"  —  But  the  greatest  of  these."  The  mightiest  personal 
power  that  any  teacher  can  hope  to  have  is  love  for  his 
pupils.  Despite  tluir  faults  and  deficiencies,  despite  soiled 
faces  and  grimy  hantls,  despite  tiieir  stubbornness  and  their 
impudence,  each  ])upil  has  a  heart  and  a  ]iersonalit\-  of  his 
own  and  if  only  the  earnest  teacher  will  find  the  real  soul 


3/0  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 

of  the  boy  or  girl  behind  the  frowns  nnd  the  freckles,  he 
will  find  someone  there  who  is  lovable  and  able  to  love. 
The  teacher  who  can  love  his  pupils  to  obedience,  love  them 
to  industry,  love  them  to  loving  him,  has  mastered  the  whole 
secret  of  personality  and  power.  It  is  not  hard  to  do.  It  is 
merely  knowing  them  well,  respecting  the  souls  of  them,  and 
finding  the  goodness  that  is  in  every  one  of  them.  Knowl- 
edge begets  sympathy,  s\mpatli\'  begets  love,  and  love  is 
the  mysterious  solvent  of  all  sorts  of  difficulties  that  arise 
in  school,  in  the  home,  or  wherever  human  beings  deal  with 
one  another, 

READmcs 

Chancellor.    Classroom  Management,  chap.  x. 

CoLGROVE.    The  Teacher  and  the  School,  Part  I. 

CuLTER  and  Stone.    The  Rural  School,  chaps,  v,  vi. 

Dresslar.    School  Hygiene,  chap.  xx. 

DUTTON.    School  Management,  chaps,  ii.  iii. 

Ladd.    The  Teachers  Practical  Philosophy,  l^arts  I,  II. 

MiJNSTERHERc;.    Psychology  and  the  Teacher,  chap.  xxix. 

Page.    Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  chaps,  i-v. 

Payne.    Education  of  Teachers,  chaps,  i-iv. 

Sabin.    Common  .Sense  Didactics,  chap.  i. 

Terman.    The  Teacher's  Health,  chap.  vii. 

Weimer.    The  Way  to  the  Heart  of  the  Pupil,  chaps,  ii-iv. 

White.    School  Management,  pp.  17-47. 


INDEX 


Aims,  of   leaching,    113,   216,   337; 

pupils',  217;  of  education,  230;  of 

celebrations,  336 
Air,  fresh,  40,  49,  Si 
All-year  sessions,  327 
Apparatus,  62 
Arbor  Day,  13,  336,  340 
Architecture,  school,  19 
Assignment,  lesson,  21S,  226 
Astigmatism,  30 
Attendance,   contest,    104;   regular, 

290 
Authority,  teacher's,  29S,  351 


Uatavia  plan,  129 
15ible  in  school,  200 
IJook  box,  56 
Boy  Scouts,  312 
Huildings,  school,  19;  cleaning, 
readiness  of,  194 

Cambridge  plan,  128 
Celebrations,  336 
Character  building,  233,  236 
Charts,  64 
Cheerfulness,  366 
Church  relations,  320,  353 
Cities,  school,  283 
Citizenship,  school,  290,  311 
Classification  of  pupils,  119 
Classrooms,  21 
Cleaning  buildings,  75,  81 
Cleaning  floors,  76 
Cleaning  grounds,   15 
Cleanliness,  of  buildings,  75,  8: 

pupils,  93  ;  of  teachers,  369 
Cloakrooms,  23 
Comenius,  1 19 
Commands,  299 
Community  center,  332 
Community  relations,  304 
Conduct  of  teachers,  353 
Contagion,  86 


Contagious  diseases,  90 
Continuation  schools,  330 
Contract,  teacher's,  348 
Cooperation,    of    community,    304, 

327  ;  of  teachers,  353 ;   of  pupils 

{see  I'upil  participation) 
Corporal  punishment,  273 
Corridors,  21 
Coughing,  87 
Courage,  301,  367 
Course  of  study,  109,  352 
Courtesy,  299,  354,  366 
Criticisms,  218,  219 


Daily  schedule,  167 

Defective  lighting.  34 

Defective  pupils,  95,  102 

Defective  vision,  30,  35 
75;       Democracy,  school,  283,  298 

Dental  inspection.  97 

Departmental  teaching,  123 

Desks,  54 

Devotional  exercises,  199 

Differentiated  courses.  133 

Discipline.  269.  292,  "^Qi 

Diseases,  contagious,  90 

Dishonesty,  294 

Disinfecting,  78,  90,  92 

Doors,  22 

Drafts,  window,  39 

Drill,  superfluous,  221 

Drinking  facilities,  87 

Drudgery,  229.  239 

Dust,  76,  78 
;  of       Dusting,  77,  81 

Duties  of  teachers.  347 

Economy,  in  management,  i  ;  in 
buildings,  26;  in  desks,  60;  in 
apparatus,  62 ;  in  organization. 
121  ;  in  schedule,  171  ;  in  study 
schedule,  184;  by  right  start,  194; 
in  routine,  207  ;   in  tcachirg  :vk.\ 

371 


17^ 


SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 


study,  215;  in  thoroughness,  222  ; 
in  list  of  "  inexcusables,"  223  ;  in 
phiy  and  work,  236;  in  marking, 
245;  by  social  motivation,  2(10; 
in  incentives,  265;  in  order,  281  ; 
in  government,  285  ;  in. wider  use 
of  school  plant,  325;  in  all-year 
session,  327 
l'"ducative  values,  in  management, 
2;  of  grounds,  10,  12,  15,  17;  of 
buildings,  25;  of  lighting,  36;  of 
ventilation,  50 ;  of  posture,  60 ; 
of  apparatus,  64,  71;  of  housekeep- 
ing, 75,  79  ;  of  cleanliness,  88  ;  of 
health,  93,  103,  104;  of  grading, 
122,  134,  156;  of  promotions,  139, 
143,  145,  146;  of  examinations, 
140;  of  reports,  160;  of  schedule, 
172  ;  of  study  programs,  186,  188, 
190;  of  morning  exercises,  199, 
203;  of  routine,  207,  210;  of  fire 
drills,  213;  of  list  of  "inexcus- 
ables," 223;  of  study,  225;  of 
work,  233,  234  ;  of  grading  papers, 
242,246;  of  social  problems,  257  ; 
of  motives,  260,  262  ;  of  incentives, 
264;  of  punishment,  269,  275;  of 
government,  281  ;  of  corrective 
government,  292  ;  of  community 
relations,  304 ;  of  special  days, 
336;  of  prizes,  345 
Efficiency,   in   promotions,    146;   in 

learning,  235 
Fllastic  schedule,  176 
Entertainments,  public,  308 
I'Lquipment,  62 
I'-vening  schools,  329 
]<2xaminations  for  promotions,  140 
Excursions,  school,  37 
Exercises,  morning,  199,  203 
Extension,  school,  324  [98,  loi 

Eyes,  strain  of,  28 ;  examination  of, 

Fairs,  school,  104,  343 
Faith  in  pupils,  367 
Fatigue,  169 
Fighting,  295 
Fire  drills,  212 
I'"irmness,  367 
P'irst  day,  194 
Flexible  grading,  130 
Fresh  air,  40,  49 
Friendship,  369 


Gardening,  school-home,  315 

Gary  plan,  180 

Government,  constructive,  281  ;  cor- 
rective, 293 

Grades,  daily,  142;  marks  in,  150; 
ranking  in,  161 

Grading  papers,  239 

Grading  pupils,  121  ;  systems  for,  128 

Gravity  systems,  44 

Chounds,  school,  9 

Group  motivation,  258,  260 

Group  teaching,  130 

Habit,  laws  of,  208 

Health,  teacher's,  359 

Health  and  attendance  contest,  105 

Health  ideals,  93,  106 

Health  inspection,  85 

Health  olliccrs,  J'o 

Health  precautions,  86 

Health  records,  loi 

Health  reports,  102 

Health  responsibility,  84,  95 

Health  training,  104 

Hearing  tests,  loi 

Heat  and  ventilation,  37 

High-school  program,  179 

Holidays,  337 

Home  life  and  school  work,  185,  190 

Home  study,  184 

Home  work,  credits  for,  316 

Honesty,  teacher's,  364 

Honor  system,  282 

Housekeeping,  school,  75,  80 

Housekeeping  lessons,  314 

Humidity,  43,  49,  80 

Hygiene  of  eyes,  35 

Hygienic  posture,  58 

Hygienic  ventilation,  41 

Ilypermetropia,  30 

Impulses,  250 

Incentives,  263,  269 

Individual  instruction,  129,  135,  174, 

188 
Indorsements,  350 
Industries,  313 

"  Inexcusables,"    223,  239,  241 
Infection,  87,  93 
Initiative,  of  pupil,  210;  of  teacher, 

36S 
Inkwells,  56 
Instincts,  251 


IXDEX 


373 


Interests,  230 

Interference  with  teachers,  351 

Jacketed  stoves,  44 

Janitor  service,  80 

Janitors,  76 

Jesuits,  109 

Judgment, teacher's,  1.(3;  pupils', 246 

Justice  not  blind,  293 

Lancastrian  scho<jls,  20,  120 

La  Salle,  1 19 

Lesson,  types  of,  2  1 7  ;  plans  fur,  2  1 7 

Library,  school,  69 

Lighting,  28 

Location  of  school,  10 

Love,  government  by,  369 

Management,  scope  of,  i 
Maps,  68 

Marking  systems,  150,  245,  247 
Medical  cooperation,  315 
Medical  inspection,  85,  97 
Mechanical  organization,  120,  125 
Melanchthon,  109,  119 
Methods  of  teaching,  ?i7,  352 
Monitorial  schools,  120 
Monitors,  288 
Montessori  program,  iSq 
Morning  exercises,  199,  203 
Motivation,    133,   297;    social,   224, 

252  ;  principles  of,  262 
Motives,  250,  294 
Movable  desks,  57 
Moving  pictures,  69,  308 
Museums,  school,  69 
Myopia,  30 

Natural  punishment,  276,  292 
Normal-distriijulion  marking,  153 
Nurse,  school,  99 

Obedience,  of  pupil,  299  ;  of  teacher, 

354 
Open-air  schools,  38 
Order,  defined,  281 
Organization,  of  school,   119;   aims 

of,  I  24 
Oxygen  and  study.  4 1 

Parade,  school-fair,  345 
Parents,   report    to,    159;    relations 
with,  287,  341 


Part-time  study,  327 

Passing  papers,  routine  of,  208 

Patience,  367 

Patrons'  I  Jay,  341 

Personal  appearance,  368 

Personality,  363 

Phonograph,  70 

Planning  lessons,  217 

Play,  229,  252 

Playgrounds,  12,  70 

Politeness,  366 

Position,  securing,  348;  tenure  of,  350 

Posture,  58,  60 

Preparation  for  teaching,  356 

Press  and  school,  306 

Privies,  16,  24 

Prizes,  266,  275,  344 

Problems,  in  study,  6,  225 

Profanity,  295 

Professional  growth,  358,  362 

Program,  daily,  176 

Progress  notes,  220,  289 

Promotions,  135,  145,  148 

Public  service,  relations  to,  309 

Pueblo  plan,  129 

Punctuality,  290 

Pupil  participation,  in  community 
life,  306,  309  ;  in  the  work  of  the 
home,  316;  in  celebrations,  343 

Pupil  participation  in  management, 
educative  value  of,  2  ;  grounds,  12, 
15,  16;  buildings,  25  ;  ventilation, 
50 ;  seats,  60 ;  apparatus,  64  ; 
playgrounds,  7 1  ;  cleaning,  79 ; 
promotions,  145;  study  programs, 
187;  first  day,  198;  morning  ex- 
ercises, 203;  routine,  210;  "in- 
excusable" lists,  224;  marking 
papers,  241;  recitations,  2  58; 
punishment,  278 ;  government, 
281 

Pupil-teachers,  120 

Railroads,  cooperation  of,  314 
luitio  Stiidionn/i,  109 
Rebellion,  of  pupils,  298 
Recitation  periods.  167 
Recreation,  in  schedule,  169  ;  versus 

celebration.  338  ;  teacher's,  360 
Relative  ranking,  154 
Rc])airs,  25,  26,  60 
Reports  to  parents,  1 59 
Results,  teaching,  2,  113.  220 


374 


SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 


Rights,  teacher's,  347 
Routine,  206,  229 

Rules  and  regulations,  S,  2S5,  290, 
347 

Sanitary  conditions,  10,  86 
Savings  banks,  school,  312 
Schedule,   daily,    167;    study,    1S6; 

teacher's,  362 
School  cities,  2S3 
School  extension,  324 
School  fairs,  104,  343 
Seating,  school,  53  ;  hygiene  of,  58 
Segregated  study  plan,  iSS 
Self-government,  of  pupil,  283 ;   of 

teacher,  356 
Shifting  group  plan,  130 
Sincerity,  364 
Singing,  values  of,  202 
Social  activities,  332 
Social  government,  281 
Social  groups,  256 
Social  motives,  252,  27S 
Social  problem  (health),  85,  93 
Social  relations,  304 
Special  classes,  128 
Special  days,  336 
Special  weeks,  342 
Spitting,  87 
Stairways,  22 
Stereopticon,  69 
Study,  suggestions  for,  5  ;  habits  of, 

186,  189,  197,  224;  waste  in,  224; 

professional,  358 
Study  programs,  186 
Sturm,  1 19 

Summer  sessions,  326 
Sympathy,  256 

Tact,  365 

Teaching,  measures  of,  115;  waste 
in,  215;  as  affected  by  :  eyestrain, 
28;  ventilation,  41;  seating,  54, 
60 ;  apparatus,  62  ;  physical  de- 
fects, 95;  course  of  study,  115; 
flexible  grading,  135;  grading  sys- 
tems, 139,  145;  marking  systems, 


150,  156;  reports  to  parents,  165; 
schedule,  176;  aims,  216;  plans, 
21S;  progress  notes,  220;  drudg- 
ery, 237,  239;  marking  papers, 
247;  motives,  253,  257;  incen- 
tives, 264  ;  punishment,  269,  275  ; 
professional  preparation,  357 ; 
physical  condition,  359;  person- 
ality, 363 
Teeth,  defective,  96 ;  inspection  of, 

97 
Temperature,  42,  80 
Tests,  informal,  142  ;  scientific,  148 
Textbooks,  use  of,  113 
Thoroughness,  220,  222 
Threats,  300 
Time  limits,  1 1 1 
Time  saving,  171,  215,  222,  360 
Toilets,  16,  24 
Towels,  88 
Type  in  printing,  35 
Types  of  teaching,  217 

Ungraded  schools,  120 

Vacation  schools,  326 

Ventilation,  systems  of,  40  ;  prob- 
lem in,  41;  standards  of,  47  ;  prin- 
ciples of,  50 

Vices,  remedy  for,  296 

Virility,  296 

Vocational  guidance,  331 

Wall,  coloring,  33 

Waste,  in  equipment,  62 ;  from 
physical  defects,  95  ;  in  teaching, 
215;  in  study,  224;  in  idle  plant, 

325 
^^  ater  supply,  88 
Wells,  school.  88 
Whispering,  286 
Window  boards,  39 
Window  cleaning,  82 
Window  shades,  33 
Window  ventilation,  38 
Windows.  32 
Worry,  folly  of,  363 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


APR  2  6  ^0^'^ 
blAN  2  L 


JOl  8 


19^f 


3EC  4     ^^S^ 


Form  L-9-15m-7.'32 


t 


3011 
b43 
cop  .1 


Bennett:    - 


ginhno'l    efficiency 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    001  098  474   8 


'SOW 


